I have had a Kentucky A-250S for some 30 years. The KM-150 is a pretty common starter instrument and is recommended by many instructors. Check the Mandolin Store and Folk Musician, similar pricing and setup. The Hungarian folk music is an integral part of the culture of the Hungarians. The development of folk music has always been in parallel with the social and cultural development of the country, thus it is an essential part of the Hungarian identity. The Hungarians always felt that folk music is a link with the past that they have to continue, preserve and enrich.
(Redirected from Rock musician)
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Rock music is a broad genre of popular music that originated as 'rock and roll' in the United States in the early 1950s, and developed into a range of different styles in the 1960s and later, particularly in the United Kingdom and in the United States.[1][2] It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, a style which drew heavily on the genres of blues, rhythm and blues, and from country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk, and incorporated influences from jazz, classical and other musical styles. Musically, rock has centered on the electric guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass, drums, and one or more singers. Usually, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse–chorus form, but the genre has become extremely diverse. Like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political.
By the late 1960s 'classic rock'[1] period, a number of distinct rock music subgenres had emerged, including hybrids like blues rock, folk rock, country rock, southern rock, raga rock, and jazz-rock, many of which contributed to the development of psychedelic rock, which was influenced by the counterculturalpsychedelic and hippie scene. New genres that emerged included progressive rock, which extended the artistic elements; glam rock, which highlighted showmanship and visual style; and the diverse and enduring subgenre of heavy metal, which emphasized volume, power, and speed. In the second half of the 1970s, punk rock reacted by producing stripped-down, energetic social and political critiques. Punk was an influence in the 1980s on new wave, post-punk and eventually alternative rock. From the 1990s alternative rock began to dominate rock music and break into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop, and indie rock. Further fusion subgenres have since emerged, including pop punk, electronic rock, rap rock, and rap metal, as well as conscious attempts to revisit rock's history, including the garage rock/post-punk and techno-pop revivals at the beginning of the 2000s.
Rock music has also embodied and served as the vehicle for cultural and social movements, leading to major subcultures including mods and rockers in the UK and the hippie counterculture that spread out from San Francisco in the US in the 1960s. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the goth, punk, and emo subcultures. Inheriting the folk tradition of the protest song, rock music has been associated with political activism as well as changes in social attitudes to race, sex and drug use, and is often seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism and conformity.
- 3Early 1960s
- 4Psychedelia and progressivism
- 4.1Blues and folk fusions
- 5Early 1970s
- 6Punk era
- 7Alternative
- 82000s–present
- 9Social impact
Characteristics[edit]
A good definition of rock, in fact, is that it's popular music that to a certain degree doesn't care if it's popular.
—Bill Wyman in Vulture (2016)[3]
Red Hot Chili Peppers in 2006, showing a quartet lineup for a rock band (from left to right: bassist, lead vocalist, drummer, and guitarist).
The sound of rock is traditionally centered on the amplifiedelectric guitar, which emerged in its modern form in the 1950s with the popularity of rock and roll.[4] Also, it was influenced by the sounds of electric blues guitarists.[5] The sound of an electric guitar in rock music is typically supported by an electric bass guitar, which pioneered in jazz music in the same era,[6] and percussion produced from a drum kit that combines drums and cymbals.[7] This trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, the Hammond organ, and the synthesizer.[8] The basic rock instrumentation was derived from the basic blues band instrumentation (prominent lead guitar, second chordal instrument, bass, and drums).[5] A group of musicians performing rock music is termed as a rock band or a rock group. Furthermore, it typically consists of between three (the power trio) and five members. Classically, a rock band takes the form of a quartet whose members cover one or more roles, including vocalist, lead guitarist, rhythm guitarist, bass guitarist, drummer, and often keyboard player or other instrumentalist.[9]
A simple 4/4 drum pattern common in rock music Play
Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four.[10] Melodies often originate from older musical modes such as the Dorian and Mixolydian, as well as major and minor modes. Harmonies range from the common triad to parallel perfect fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions.[10] Since the late 1950s[11] and particularly from the mid 1960s onwards, rock music often used the verse-chorus structure derived from blues and folk music, but there has been considerable variation from this model.[12] Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock.[13] Because of its complex history and its tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that 'it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition.'[14]
Rock and roll was conceived as an outlet for adolescent yearnings ... To make rock and roll is also an ideal way to explore intersections of sex, love, violence, and fun, to broadcast the delights and limitations of the regional, and to deal with the depradations and benefits of mass culture itself.
—Robert Christgau in Christgau's Record Guide (1981)[15]
Unlike many earlier styles of popular music, rock lyrics have dealt with a wide range of themes, including romantic love, sex, rebellion against 'The Establishment', social concerns, and life styles.[10] These themes were inherited from a variety of sources such as the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music, and rhythm and blues.[16] Music journalist Robert Christgau characterizes rock lyrics as a 'cool medium' with simple diction and repeated refrains, and asserts that rock's primary 'function' 'pertains to music, or, more generally, noise.'[17] The predominance of white, male, and often middle class musicians in rock music has often been noted,[18] and rock has been seen as an appropriation of black musical forms for a young, white and largely male audience.[19] As a result, it has also been seen to articulate the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics.[20] Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, 'rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality and aggression'.[21]
Since the term 'rock' started being used in preference to 'rock and roll' from the late-1960s, it has usually been contrasted with pop music, with which it has shared many characteristics, but from which it is often distanced by an emphasis on musicianship, live performance, and a focus on serious and progressive themes as part of an ideology of authenticity that is frequently combined with an awareness of the genre's history and development.[22] According to Simon Frith, rock was 'something more than pop, something more than rock and roll' and '[r]ock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the romantic concept of art as artistic expression, original and sincere'.[22]
In the new millennium, the term rock has occasionally been used as a blanket term including forms like pop music, reggae music, soul music, and even hip hop, which it has been influenced with but often contrasted through much of its history.[23] Christgau has used the term broadly to refer to popular and semipopular music that cater to his sensibility as 'a rock-and-roller', including a fondness for a good beat, a meaningful lyric with some wit, and the theme of youth, which holds an 'eternal attraction' so objective 'that all youth music partakes of sociology and the field report.' Writing in Christgau's Record Guide: The '80s (1990), he said this sensibility is evident in the music of folk singer-songwriter Michelle Shocked, rapper LL Cool J, and synth-pop duo Pet Shop Boys—'all kids working out their identities'—as much as it is in the music of Chuck Berry, the Ramones, and the Replacements.[24]
1950s: Rock and roll[edit]
The foundations of rock music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s, and quickly spread to much of the rest of the world. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various black musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country and western.[25] In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music (then termed 'race music') for a multi-racial audience, and is credited with first using the phrase 'rock and roll' to describe the music.[26]
Debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Contenders include Goree Carter's 'Rock Awhile' (1949);[27]Jimmy Preston's 'Rock the Joint' (1949), which was later covered by Bill Haley & His Comets in 1952;[28] and 'Rocket 88' by Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats (in fact, Ike Turner and his band the Kings of Rhythm), recorded by Sam Phillips for Sun Records in 1951.[29] Four years later, Bill Haley's 'Rock Around the Clock' (1955) became the first rock and roll song to top Billboard magazine's main sales and airplay charts, and opened the door worldwide for this new wave of popular culture.[30][31]
Elvis Presley in a promotion shot for Jailhouse Rock in 1957
It also has been argued that 'That's All Right (Mama)' (1954), Elvis Presley's first single for Sun Records in Memphis, could be the first rock and roll record,[32] but, at the same time, Big Joe Turner's 'Shake, Rattle & Roll', later covered by Haley, was already at the top of the Billboard R&B charts. Other artists with early rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Gene Vincent.[29] Soon rock and roll was the major force in American record sales and crooners, such as Eddie Fisher, Perry Como, and Patti Page, who had dominated the previous decade of popular music, found their access to the pop charts significantly curtailed.[33]
Rock and roll has been seen as leading to a number of distinct subgenres, including rockabilly, combining rock and roll with 'hillbilly' country music, which was usually played and recorded in the mid-1950s by white singers such as Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy Holly and with the greatest commercial success, Elvis Presley.[34] In contrast doo wop placed an emphasis on multi-part vocal harmonies and meaningless backing lyrics (from which the genre later gained its name), which were usually supported with light instrumentation and had its origins in 1930s and 1940s African American vocal groups.[35] Acts like the Crows, the Penguins, the El Dorados and the Turbans all scored major hits, and groups like the Platters, with songs including 'The Great Pretender' (1955),[36] and the Coasters with humorous songs like 'Yakety Yak' (1958),[37] ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the period.[38]
The era also saw the growth in popularity of the electric guitar, and the development of a specifically rock and roll style of playing through such exponents as Chuck Berry, Link Wray, and Scotty Moore.[39] The use of distortion, pioneered by electric blues guitarists such as Guitar Slim,[40]Willie Johnson and Pat Hare in the early 1950s,[41] was popularized by Chuck Berry in the mid-1950s.[42] The use of power chords, pioneered by Willie Johnson and Pat Hare in the early 1950s,[41] was popularized by Link Wray in the late 1950s.[43]
In the United Kingdom, the trad jazz and folk movements brought visiting blues music artists to Britain.[44]Lonnie Donegan's 1955 hit 'Rock Island Line' was a major influence and helped to develop the trend of skiffle music groups throughout the country, many of which, including John Lennon's Quarrymen, moved on to play rock and roll.[45]
Commentators have traditionally perceived a decline of rock and roll in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By 1959, the death of Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper and Ritchie Valens in a plane crash, the departure of Elvis for the army, the retirement of Little Richard to become a preacher, prosecutions of Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry and the breaking of the payola scandal (which implicated major figures, including Alan Freed, in bribery and corruption in promoting individual acts or songs), gave a sense that the rock and roll era established at that point had come to an end.[46]
Early 1960s[edit]
Pop rock and instrumental rock[edit]
The Everly Brothers in 2006
The term pop has been used since the early 20th century to refer to popular music in general, but from the mid-1950s it began to be used for a distinct genre, aimed at a youth market, often characterized as a softer alternative to rock and roll.[47][48] From about 1967, it was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music, to describe a form that was more commercial, ephemeral and accessible.[22] In contrast rock music was seen as focusing on extended works, particularly albums, was often associated with particular sub-cultures (like the counterculture of the 1960s), placed an emphasis on artistic values and 'authenticity', stressed live performance and instrumental or vocal virtuosity and was often seen as encapsulating progressive developments rather than simply reflecting existing trends.[22][47][48][49] Nevertheless, much pop and rock music has been very similar in sound, instrumentation and even lyrical content.[nb 1]
The Shirelles in 1962. Clockwise from top: Addie 'Micki' Harris, Shirley Owens, Beverly Lee, and Doris Coley.
The period of the later 1950s and early 1960s has traditionally been seen as an era of hiatus for rock and roll.[53] More recently some authors[weasel words] have emphasised important innovations and trends in this period without which future developments would not have been possible.[54][55] While early rock and roll, particularly through the advent of rockabilly, saw the greatest commercial success for male and white performers, in this era the genre was dominated by black and female artists. Rock and roll had not disappeared at the end of the 1950s and some of its energy can be seen in the Twist dance craze of the early 1960s, mainly benefiting the career of Chubby Checker.[55][nb 2]
Cliff Richard had the first British rock and roll hit with 'Move It', effectively ushering in the sound of British rock.[58] At the start of the 1960s, his backing group the Shadows was the most successful group recording instrumentals.[59] While rock 'n' roll was fading into lightweight pop and ballads, British rock groups at clubs and local dances, heavily influenced by blues-rock pioneers like Alexis Korner, were starting to play with an intensity and drive seldom found in white American acts.[60]
Also significant was the advent of soul music as a major commercial force. Developing out of rhythm and blues with a re-injection of gospel music and pop, led by pioneers like Ray Charles and Sam Cooke from the mid-1950s,[61] by the early 1960s figures like Marvin Gaye, James Brown, Aretha Franklin, Curtis Mayfield and Stevie Wonder were dominating the R&B charts and breaking through into the main pop charts, helping to accelerate their desegregation, while Motown and Stax/Volt Records were becoming major forces in the record industry.[62][nb 3] Some historians of music[weasel words] have also pointed to important and innovative technical developments that built on rock and roll in this period, including the electronic treatment of sound by such innovators as Joe Meek, and the elaborate production methods of the Wall of Sound pursued by Phil Spector.[55]
Surf music[edit]
The Beach Boys performing in 1964
The instrumental rock and roll of performers such as Duane Eddy, Link Wray and the Ventures was developed by Dick Dale, who added distinctive 'wet' reverb, rapid alternate picking, and Middle Eastern and Mexican influences. He produced the regional hit 'Let's Go Trippin' in 1961 and launched the surf music craze, following up with songs like 'Misirlou' (1962).[64] Like Dale and his Del-Tones, most early surf bands were formed in Southern California, including the Bel-Airs, the Challengers, and Eddie & the Showmen.[64]The Chantays scored a top ten national hit with 'Pipeline' in 1963 and probably the best known surf tune was 1963's 'Wipe Out', by the Surfaris, which hit number 2 and number 10 on the Billboard charts in 1965.[65]
Surf music achieved its greatest commercial success as vocal music, particularly the work of the Beach Boys, formed in 1961 in Southern California. Their early albums included both instrumental surf rock (among them covers of music by Dick Dale) and vocal songs, drawing on rock and roll and doo wop and the close harmonies of vocal pop acts like the Four Freshmen.[citation needed] Their first chart hit, 'Surfin' in 1962 reached the Billboard top 100 and helped make the surf music craze a national phenomenon.[66] The surf music craze and the careers of almost all surf acts was effectively ended by the arrival of the British Invasion from 1964.[citation needed][nb 4]
British Invasion[edit]
The Beatles arriving in New York in January 1964 at the beginning of the British Invasion
By the end of 1962, what would become the British rock scene had started with beat groups like The Beatles, Gerry & the Pacemakers and the Searchers from Liverpool and Freddie and the Dreamers, Herman's Hermits and the Hollies from Manchester. They drew on a wide range of American influences including 1950s rock and roll, soul, rhythm and blues, and surf music,[67] initially reinterpreting standard American tunes and playing for dancers. Bands like the Animals from Newcastle and Them from Belfast,[68] and particularly those from London like the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds, were much more directly influenced by rhythm and blues and later blues music.[69] Soon these groups were composing their own material, combining US forms of music and infusing it with a high energy beat. Beat bands tended towards 'bouncy, irresistible melodies', while early British blues acts tended towards less sexually innocent, more aggressive songs, often adopting an anti-establishment stance. There was, however, particularly in the early stages, considerable musical crossover between the two tendencies.[70] By 1963, led by the Beatles, beat groups had begun to achieve national success in Britain, soon to be followed into the charts by the more rhythm and blues focused acts.[71]
The Rolling Stones arriving at Amsterdam in August 1964
'I Want to Hold Your Hand' was the Beatles' first number 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100,[72] spending 7 weeks at the top and a total of 15 weeks on the chart.[73][74] Their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show on 9 February 1964, drawing an estimated 73 million viewers (at the time a record for an American television program) is often considered a milestone in American pop culture. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, including the entire top five. The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed into the US charts by numerous British bands.[70] During the next two years British acts dominated their own and the US charts with Peter and Gordon, the Animals,[75]Manfred Mann, Petula Clark,[75] Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, the Rolling Stones,[76]the Troggs, and Donovan[77] all having one or more number one singles.[73] Other major acts that were part of the invasion included the Kinks and the Dave Clark Five.[78][79]
The British Invasion helped internationalize the production of rock and roll, opening the door for subsequent British (and Irish) performers to achieve international success.[80] In America it arguably spelled the end of instrumental surf music, vocal girl groups and (for a time) the teen idols, that had dominated the American charts in the late 1950s and 1960s.[81] It dented the careers of established R&B acts like Fats Domino and Chubby Checker and even temporarily derailed the chart success of surviving rock and roll acts, including Elvis.[82] The British Invasion also played a major part in the rise of a distinct genre of rock music, and cemented the primacy of the rock group, based on guitars and drums and producing their own material as singer-songwriters.[35]
Garage rock[edit]
Garage rock was a raw form of rock music, particularly prevalent in North America in the mid-1960s and so called because of the perception that it was rehearsed in the suburban family garage.[83][84] Garage rock songs often revolved around the traumas of high school life, with songs about 'lying girls' being particularly common.[85] The lyrics and delivery tended to be more aggressive than was common at the time, often with growled or shouted vocals that dissolved into incoherent screaming.[83] They ranged from crude one-chord music (like the Seeds) to near-studio musician quality (including the Knickerbockers, the Remains, and the Fifth Estate). There were also regional variations in many parts of the country with flourishing scenes particularly in California and Texas.[85] The Pacific Northwest states of Washington and Oregon had perhaps[according to whom?] the most defined regional sound.[86]
The D-Men (later The Fifth Estate) in 1964
The style had been evolving from regional scenes as early as 1958. 'Tall Cool One' (1959) by The Wailers and 'Louie Louie' by the Kingsmen (1963) are mainstream examples of the genre in its formative stages.[87] By 1963, garage band singles were creeping into the national charts in greater numbers, including Paul Revere and the Raiders (Boise),[88]the Trashmen (Minneapolis)[89] and the Rivieras (South Bend, Indiana).[90] Other influential garage bands, such as the Sonics (Tacoma, Washington), never reached the Billboard Hot 100.[91]
The British Invasion greatly influenced garage bands, providing them with a national audience, leading many (often surf or hot rod groups) to adopt a British influence, and encouraging many more groups to form.[85] Thousands of garage bands were extant in the US and Canada during the era and hundreds produced regional hits.[85] Despite scores of bands being signed to major or large regional labels, most were commercial failures. It is generally agreed that garage rock peaked both commercially and artistically around 1966.[85] By 1968 the style largely disappeared from the national charts and at the local level as amateur musicians faced college, work or the draft.[85] New styles had evolved to replace garage rock.[85][nb 5]
Psychedelia and progressivism[edit]
Blues and folk fusions[edit]
Blues rock[edit]
Although the first impact of the British Invasion on American popular music was through beat and R&B based acts, the impetus was soon taken up by a second wave of bands that drew their inspiration more directly from American blues, including the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds.[93] British blues musicians of the late 1950s and early 1960s had been inspired by the acoustic playing of figures such as Lead Belly, who was a major influence on the Skiffle craze, and Robert Johnson.[94] Increasingly they adopted a loud amplified sound, often centered on the electric guitar, based on the Chicago blues, particularly after the tour of Britain by Muddy Waters in 1958, which prompted Cyril Davies and guitarist Alexis Korner to form the band Blues Incorporated.[95] The band involved and inspired many of the figures of the subsequent British blues boom, including members of the Rolling Stones and Cream, combining blues standards and forms with rock instrumentation and emphasis.[60]
Eric Clapton performing in Barcelona in 1974
The other key focus for British blues was John Mayall; his band, the Bluesbreakers, included Eric Clapton (after Clapton's departure from the Yardbirds) and later Peter Green. Particularly significant was the release of Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton (Beano) album (1966), considered one of the seminal British blues recordings and the sound of which was much emulated in both Britain and the United States.[96] Eric Clapton went on to form supergroups Cream, Blind Faith, and Derek and the Dominos, followed by an extensive solo career that helped bring blues rock into the mainstream.[95] Green, along with the Bluesbreaker's rhythm section Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, formed Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac, who enjoyed some of the greatest commercial success in the genre.[95] In the late 1960s Jeff Beck, also an alumnus of the Yardbirds, moved blues rock in the direction of heavy rock with his band, the Jeff Beck Group.[95] The last Yardbirds guitarist was Jimmy Page, who went on to form The New Yardbirds which rapidly became Led Zeppelin. Many of the songs on their first three albums, and occasionally later in their careers, were expansions on traditional blues songs.[95]
In America, blues rock had been pioneered in the early 1960s by guitarist Lonnie Mack,[97] but the genre began to take off in the mid-1960s as acts developed a sound similar to British blues musicians. Key acts included Paul Butterfield (whose band acted like Mayall's Bluesbreakers in Britain as a starting point for many successful musicians), Canned Heat, the early Jefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, the J. Geils Band and Jimi Hendrix with his power trios, the Jimi Hendrix Experience (which included two British members, and was founded in Britain), and Band of Gypsys, whose guitar virtuosity and showmanship would be among the most emulated of the decade.[95] Blues rock bands from the southern states, like the Allman Brothers Band, Lynyrd Skynyrd, and ZZ Top, incorporated country elements into their style to produce the distinctive genre Southern rock.[98]
Early blues rock bands often emulated jazz, playing long, involved improvisations, which would later be a major element of progressive rock. From about 1967 bands like Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience had moved away from purely blues-based music into psychedelia.[99] By the 1970s, blues rock had become heavier and more riff-based, exemplified by the work of Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple, and the lines between blues rock and hard rock 'were barely visible',[99] as bands began recording rock-style albums.[99] The genre was continued in the 1970s by figures such as George Thorogood and Pat Travers,[95] but, particularly on the British scene (except perhaps for the advent of groups such as Status Quo and Foghat who moved towards a form of high energy and repetitive boogie rock), bands became focused on heavy metal innovation, and blues rock began to slip out of the mainstream.[100]
Folk rock[edit]
Joan Baez and Bob Dylan in 1963
By the 1960s, the scene that had developed out of the American folk music revival had grown to a major movement, utilising traditional music and new compositions in a traditional style, usually on acoustic instruments.[101] In America the genre was pioneered by figures such as Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger and often identified with progressive or labor politics.[101] In the early sixties figures such as Joan Baez and Bob Dylan had come to the fore in this movement as singer-songwriters.[102] Dylan had begun to reach a mainstream audience with hits including 'Blowin' in the Wind' (1963) and 'Masters of War' (1963), which brought 'protest songs' to a wider public,[103] but, although beginning to influence each other, rock and folk music had remained largely separate genres, often with mutually exclusive audiences.[104]
Early attempts to combine elements of folk and rock included the Animals' 'House of the Rising Sun' (1964), which was the first commercially successful folk song to be recorded with rock and roll instrumentation[105] and the Beatles 'I'm a Loser' (1964), arguably the first Beatles song to be influenced directly by Dylan.[106] The folk rock movement is usually thought to have taken off with The Byrds' recording of Dylan's 'Mr. Tambourine Man' which topped the charts in 1965.[104] With members who had been part of the cafe-based folk scene in Los Angeles, the Byrds adopted rock instrumentation, including drums and 12-string Rickenbacker guitars, which became a major element in the sound of the genre.[104] Later that year Dylan adopted electric instruments, much to the outrage of many folk purists, with his 'Like a Rolling Stone' becoming a US hit single.[104] Folk rock particularly took off in California, where it led acts like the Mamas & the Papas and Crosby, Stills and Nash to move to electric instrumentation, and in New York, where it spawned performers including The Lovin' Spoonful and Simon and Garfunkel, with the latter's acoustic 'The Sounds of Silence' (1965) being remixed with rock instruments to be the first of many hits.[104]
These acts directly influenced British performers like Donovan and Fairport Convention.[104] In 1969 Fairport Convention abandoned their mixture of American covers and Dylan-influenced songs to play traditional English folk music on electric instruments.[107] This British folk-rock was taken up by bands including Pentangle, Steeleye Span and the Albion Band, which in turn prompted Irish groups like Horslips and Scottish acts like the JSD Band, Spencer's Feat and later Five Hand Reel, to use their traditional music to create a brand of Celtic rock in the early 1970s.[108]
Folk-rock reached its peak of commercial popularity in the period 1967–68, before many acts moved off in a variety of directions, including Dylan and the Byrds, who began to develop country rock.[109] However, the hybridization of folk and rock has been seen as having a major influence on the development of rock music, bringing in elements of psychedelia, and helping to develop the ideas of the singer-songwriter, the protest song, and concepts of 'authenticity'.[104][110]
Psychedelic rock[edit]
Jimi Hendrix performing on Dutch TV in 1967
Psychedelic music's LSD-inspired vibe began in the folk scene.[111] The first group to advertise themselves as psychedelic rock were the 13th Floor Elevators from Texas.[111] The Beatles introduced many of the major elements of the psychedelic sound to audiences in this period, such as guitar feedback, the Indian sitar and backmaskingsound effects.[112] Psychedelic rock particularly took off in California's emerging music scene as groups followed the Byrds's shift from folk to folk rock from 1965.[112] The psychedelic lifestyle, which revolved around hallucinogenic drugs, had already developed in San Francisco and particularly prominent products of the scene were the Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane.[112][113] The Jimi Hendrix Experience's lead guitarist, Jimi Hendrix didextended distorted, feedback-filled jams which became a key feature of psychedelia.[112] Psychedelic rock reached its apogee in the last years of the decade. 1967 saw the Beatles release their definitive psychedelic statement in Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, including the controversial track 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds', the Rolling Stones responded later that year with Their Satanic Majesties Request,[112] and the Pink Floyd debuted with The Piper at the Gates of Dawn. Key recordings included Jefferson Airplane's Surrealistic Pillow and the Doors' Strange Days.[114] These trends peaked in the 1969 Woodstock festival, which saw performances by most of the major psychedelic acts.[112]
Progressive rock[edit]
Progressive rock, a term sometimes used interchangeably with art rock, moved beyond established musical formulas by experimenting with different instruments, song types, and forms.[115] From the mid-1960s the Left Banke, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and the Beach Boys, had pioneered the inclusion of harpsichords, wind, and string sections on their recordings to produce a form of Baroque rock and can be heard in singles like Procol Harum's 'A Whiter Shade of Pale' (1967), with its Bach-inspired introduction.[116]The Moody Blues used a full orchestra on their album Days of Future Passed (1967) and subsequently created orchestral sounds with synthesizers.[115] Classical orchestration, keyboards, and synthesizers were a frequent addition to the established rock format of guitars, bass, and drums in subsequent progressive rock.[117]
Prog-rock band Yes performing in concert in Indianapolis in 1977
Instrumentals were common, while songs with lyrics were sometimes conceptual, abstract, or based in fantasy and science fiction.[118]The Pretty Things' SF Sorrow (1968), and the Kinks' Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) (1969) introduced the format of rock operas and opened the door to concept albums, often telling an epic story or tackling a grand overarching theme.[119]King Crimson's 1969 début album, In the Court of the Crimson King, which mixed powerful guitar riffs and mellotron, with jazz and symphonic music, is often taken as the key recording in progressive rock, helping the widespread adoption of the genre in the early 1970s among existing blues-rock and psychedelic bands, as well as newly formed acts.[115] The vibrant Canterbury scene saw acts following Soft Machine from psychedelia, through jazz influences, toward more expansive hard rock, including Caravan, Hatfield and the North, Gong, and National Health.[120]
Greater commercial success was enjoyed by Pink Floyd, who also moved away from psychedelia after the departure of Syd Barrett in 1968, with The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), seen as a masterpiece of the genre, becoming one of the best-selling albums of all time.[121] There was an emphasis on instrumental virtuosity, with Yes showcasing the skills of both guitarist Steve Howe and keyboard player Rick Wakeman, while Emerson, Lake & Palmer were a supergroup who produced some of the genre's most technically demanding work.[115]Jethro Tull and Genesis both pursued very different, but distinctly English, brands of music.[122]Renaissance, formed in 1969 by ex-Yardbirds Jim McCarty and Keith Relf, evolved into a high-concept band featuring the three-octave voice of Annie Haslam.[123] Most British bands depended on a relatively small cult following, but a handful, including Pink Floyd, Genesis, and Jethro Tull, managed to produce top ten singles at home and break the American market.[124] The American brand of progressive rock varied from the eclectic and innovative Frank Zappa, Captain Beefheart and Blood, Sweat & Tears,[125] to more pop rock orientated bands like Boston, Foreigner, Kansas, Journey, and Styx.[115] These, beside British bands Supertramp and ELO, all demonstrated a prog rock influence and while ranking among the most commercially successful acts of the 1970s, heralding the era of pomp or arena rock, which would last until the costs of complex shows (often with theatrical staging and special effects), would be replaced by more economical rock festivals as major live venues in the 1990s.[citation needed]
The instrumental strand of the genre resulted in albums like Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells (1973), the first record, and worldwide hit, for the Virgin Records label, which became a mainstay of the genre.[115] Instrumental rock was particularly significant in continental Europe, allowing bands like Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, and Faust to circumvent the language barrier.[126] Their synthesiser-heavy 'krautrock', along with the work of Brian Eno (for a time the keyboard player with Roxy Music), would be a major influence on subsequent electronic rock.[115] With the advent of punk rock and technological changes in the late 1970s, progressive rock was increasingly dismissed as pretentious and overblown.[127][128] Many bands broke up, but some, including Genesis, ELP, Yes, and Pink Floyd, regularly scored top ten albums with successful accompanying worldwide tours.[92] Some bands which emerged in the aftermath of punk, such as Siouxsie and the Banshees, Ultravox, and Simple Minds, showed the influence of progressive rock, as well as their more usually recognized punk influences.[129]
Jazz rock[edit]
Jaco Pastorius of Weather Report in 1980
In the late 1960s, jazz-rock emerged as a distinct subgenre out of the blues-rock, psychedelic, and progressive rock scenes, mixing the power of rock with the musical complexity and improvisational elements of jazz. AllMusic states that the term jazz-rock 'may refer to the loudest, wildest, most electrified fusion bands from the jazz camp, but most often it describes performers coming from the rock side of the equation.' Jazz-rock '...generally grew out of the most artistically ambitious rock subgenres of the late '60s and early '70s', including the singer-songwriter movement.[130] Many early US rock and roll musicians had begun in jazz and carried some of these elements into the new music. In Britain the subgenre of blues rock, and many of its leading figures, like Ginger Baker and Jack Bruce of the Eric Clapton-fronted band Cream, had emerged from the British jazz scene. Often highlighted as the first true jazz-rock recording is the only album by the relatively obscure New York-based the Free Spirits with Out of Sight and Sound (1966). The first group of bands to self-consciously use the label were R&B oriented white rock bands that made use of jazzy horn sections, like Electric Flag, Blood, Sweat & Tears and Chicago, to become some of the most commercially successful acts of the later 1960s and the early 1970s.[131]
British acts to emerge in the same period from the blues scene, to make use of the tonal and improvisational aspects of jazz, included Nucleus[132] and the Graham Bond and John Mayall spin-off Colosseum. From the psychedelic rock and the Canterbury scenes came Soft Machine, who, it has been suggested, produced one of the artistically successfully fusions of the two genres. Perhaps the most critically acclaimed fusion came from the jazz side of the equation, with Miles Davis, particularly influenced by the work of Hendrix, incorporating rock instrumentation into his sound for the album Bitches Brew (1970). It was a major influence on subsequent rock-influenced jazz artists, including Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea and Weather Report.[131] The genre began to fade in the late 1970s, as a mellower form of fusion began to take its audience,[130] but acts like Steely Dan,[130] Frank Zappa and Joni Mitchell recorded significant jazz-influenced albums in this period, and it has continued to be a major influence on rock music.[131]
Early 1970s[edit]
Reflecting on developments in rock music at the start of the 1970s, Robert Christgau later wrote in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981):
The decade is, of course, an arbitrary schema itself—time doesn't just execute a neat turn toward the future every ten years. But like a lot of artificial concepts—money, say—the category does take on a reality of its own once people figure out how to put it to work. 'The '60s are over,' a slogan one only began to hear in 1972 or so, mobilized all those eager to believe that idealism had become passe, and once they were mobilized, it had. In popular music, embracing the '70s meant both an elitist withdrawal from the messy concert and counterculture scene and a profiteering pursuit of the lowest common denominator in FM radio and album rock.[15]
Rock saw greater commodification during this decade, turning into a multibillion-dollar industry and doubling its market while, as Christgau noted, suffering a significant 'loss of cultural prestige'. 'Maybe the Bee Gees became more popular than the Beatles, but they were never more popular than Jesus', he said. 'Insofar as the music retained any mythic power, the myth was self-referential — there were lots of songs about the rock and roll life but very few about how rock could change the world, except as a new brand of painkiller ... In the '70s the powerful took over, as rock industrialists capitalized on the national mood to reduce potent music to an often reactionary species of entertainment—and to transmute rock's popular base from the audience to market.'[15]
Roots rock[edit]
Roots rock is the term now used to describe a move away from what some saw as the excesses of the psychedelic scene, to a more basic form of rock and roll that incorporated its original influences, particularly country and folk music, leading to the creation of country rock and Southern rock.[133] In 1966 Bob Dylan went to Nashville to record the album Blonde on Blonde.[134] This, and subsequent more clearly country-influenced albums, have been seen as creating the genre of country folk, a route pursued by a number of largely acoustic folk musicians.[134] Other acts that followed the back-to-basics trend were the Canadian group the Band and the California-based Creedence Clearwater Revival, both of which mixed basic rock and roll with folk, country and blues, to be among the most successful and influential bands of the late 1960s.[135] The same movement saw the beginning of the recording careers of Californian solo artists like Ry Cooder, Bonnie Raitt and Lowell George,[136] and influenced the work of established performers such as the Rolling Stones' Beggar's Banquet (1968) and the Beatles' Let It Be (1970).[112]
The Eagles during their 2008–2009 Long Road out of Eden Tour
In 1968, Gram Parsons recorded Safe at Home with the International Submarine Band, arguably the first true country rock album.[137] Later that year he joined the Byrds for Sweetheart of the Rodeo (1968), generally considered one of the most influential recordings in the genre.[137] The Byrds continued in the same vein, but Parsons left to be joined by another ex-Byrds member Chris Hillman in forming the Flying Burrito Brothers who helped establish the respectability and parameters of the genre, before Parsons departed to pursue a solo career.[137] Bands in California that adopted country rock included Hearts and Flowers, Poco, New Riders of the Purple Sage,[137] the Beau Brummels,[137] and the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band.[138] Some performers also enjoyed a renaissance by adopting country sounds, including: the Everly Brothers; one-time teen idol Rick Nelson who became the frontman for the Stone Canyon Band; former Monkee Mike Nesmith who formed the First National Band; and Neil Young.[137]The Dillards were, unusually, a country act, who moved towards rock music.[137] The greatest commercial success for country rock came in the 1970s, with artists including the Doobie Brothers, Emmylou Harris, Linda Ronstadt and the Eagles (made up of members of the Burritos, Poco, and Stone Canyon Band), who emerged as one of the most successful rock acts of all time, producing albums that included Hotel California (1976).[139]
The founders of Southern rock are usually thought to be the Allman Brothers Band, who developed a distinctive sound, largely derived from blues rock, but incorporating elements of boogie, soul, and country in the early 1970s.[98] The most successful act to follow them were Lynyrd Skynyrd, who helped establish the 'Good ol' boy' image of the subgenre and the general shape of 1970s' guitar rock.[98] Their successors included the fusion/progressive instrumentalists Dixie Dregs, the more country-influenced Outlaws, jazz-leaning Wet Willie and (incorporating elements of R&B and gospel) the Ozark Mountain Daredevils.[98] After the loss of original members of the Allmans and Lynyrd Skynyrd, the genre began to fade in popularity in the late 1970s, but was sustained the 1980s with acts like .38 Special, Molly Hatchet and the Marshall Tucker Band.[98]
Glam rock[edit]
David Bowie during the Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders Tour in 1972
Glam rock emerged from the English psychedelic and art rock scenes of the late 1960s and can be seen as both an extension of and reaction against those trends.[140] Musically diverse, varying between the simple rock and roll revivalism of figures like Alvin Stardust to the complex art rock of Roxy Music, and can be seen as much as a fashion as a musical subgenre.[140] Visually it was a mesh of various styles, ranging from 1930s Hollywood glamor, through 1950s pin-up sex appeal, pre-war Cabaret theatrics, Victorian literary and symbolist styles, science fiction, to ancient and occult mysticism and mythology; manifesting itself in outrageous clothes, makeup, hairstyles, and platform-soled boots.[141] Glam is most noted for its sexual and gender ambiguity and representations of androgyny, beside extensive use of theatrics.[142] It was prefigured by the showmanship and gender-identity manipulation of American acts such as the Cockettes and Alice Cooper.[143]
The origins of glam rock are associated with Marc Bolan, who had renamed his folk duo to T. Rex and taken up electric instruments by the end of the 1960s. Often cited as the moment of inception is his appearance on the UK TV programme Top of the Pops in December 1970 wearing glitter, to perform what would be his first number 1 single 'Ride a White Swan'.[144] From 1971, already a minor star, David Bowie developed his Ziggy Stardust persona, incorporating elements of professional make up, mime and performance into his act.[145] These performers were soon followed in the style by acts including Roxy Music, Sweet, Slade, Mott the Hoople, Mud and Alvin Stardust.[145] While highly successful in the single charts in the UK, very few of these musicians were able to make a serious impact in the United States; Bowie was the major exception becoming an international superstar and prompting the adoption of glam styles among acts like Lou Reed, Iggy Pop, New York Dolls and Jobriath, often known as 'glitter rock' and with a darker lyrical content than their British counterparts.[146] In the UK the term glitter rock was most often used to refer to the extreme version of glam pursued by Gary Glitter and his support musicians the Glitter Band, who between them achieved eighteen top ten singles in the UK between 1972 and 1976.[147] A second wave of glam rock acts, including Suzi Quatro, Roy Wood's Wizzard and Sparks, dominated the British single charts from about 1974 to 1976.[145] Existing acts, some not usually considered central to the genre, also adopted glam styles, including Rod Stewart, Elton John, Queen and, for a time, even the Rolling Stones.[145] It was also a direct influence on acts that rose to prominence later, including Kiss and Adam Ant, and less directly on the formation of gothic rock and glam metal as well as on punk rock, which helped end the fashion for glam from about 1976.[146] Glam has since enjoyed sporadic modest revivals through bands such as Chainsaw Kittens, the Darkness[148] and in R n' B crossover act Prince.[149]
Soft rock, hard rock, and early heavy metal[edit]
A strange time, 1971—although rock's balkanization into genres was well underway, it was often hard to tell one catch-phrase from the next. 'Art-rock' could mean anything from the Velvets to the Moody Blues, and although Led Zeppelin was launched and Black Sabbath celebrated, 'heavy metal' remained an amorphous concept.
—Robert Christgau[150]
From the late 1960s it became common to divide mainstream rock music into soft and hard rock. Soft rock was often derived from folk rock, using acoustic instruments and putting more emphasis on melody and harmonies.[151] Major artists included Carole King, Cat Stevens and James Taylor.[151] It reached its commercial peak in the mid- to late 1970s with acts like Billy Joel, America and the reformed Fleetwood Mac, whose Rumours (1977) was the best-selling album of the decade.[152] In contrast, hard rock was more often derived from blues-rock and was played louder and with more intensity.[153] It often emphasised the electric guitar, both as a rhythm instrument using simple repetitive riffs and as a solo lead instrument, and was more likely to be used with distortion and other effects.[153] Key acts included British Invasion bands like the Kinks, as well as psychedelic era performers like Cream, Jimi Hendrix and the Jeff Beck Group.[153] Hard rock-influenced bands that enjoyed international success in the later 1970s included Queen,[154]Thin Lizzy,[155]Aerosmith, AC/DC,[153] and Van Halen.
Led Zeppelin live at Chicago Stadium in January 1975
From the late 1960s the term 'heavy metal' began to be used to describe some hard rock played with even more volume and intensity, first as an adjective and by the early 1970s as a noun.[156] The term was first used in music in Steppenwolf's 'Born to Be Wild' (1967) and began to be associated with pioneer bands like San Francisco's Blue Cheer, Cleveland's James Gang and Michigan's Grand Funk Railroad.[157] By 1970 three key British bands had developed the characteristic sounds and styles which would help shape the subgenre. Led Zeppelin added elements of fantasy to their riff laden blues-rock, Deep Purple brought in symphonic and medieval interests from their progressive rock phase and Black Sabbath introduced facets of the gothic and modal harmony, helping to produce a 'darker' sound.[158] These elements were taken up by a 'second generation' of heavy metal bands into the late 1970s, including: Judas Priest, UFO, Motörhead and Rainbow from Britain; Kiss, Ted Nugent, and Blue Öyster Cult from the US; Rush from Canada and Scorpions from Germany, all marking the expansion in popularity of the subgenre.[158] Despite a lack of airplay and very little presence on the singles charts, late-1970s heavy metal built a considerable following, particularly among adolescent working-class males in North America and Europe.[159]
Christian rock[edit]
Stryper on stage in 1986
Rock, mostly the heavy metal genre, has been criticized by some Christian leaders, who have condemned it as immoral, anti-Christian and even demonic.[160] However, Christian rock began to develop in the late 1960s, particularly out of the Jesus movement beginning in Southern California, and emerged as a subgenre in the 1970s with artists like Larry Norman, usually seen as the first major 'star' of Christian rock.[161] The genre has been particularly popular in the United States.[162] Many Christian rock performers have ties to the contemporary Christian music scene, while other bands and artists are closely linked to independent music. Since the 1980s Christian rock performers have gained mainstream success, including figures such as the American gospel-to-pop crossover artist Amy Grant and the British singer Cliff Richard.[163] While these artists were largely acceptable in Christian communities the adoption of heavy rock and glam metal styles by bands like Petra and Stryper, who achieved considerable mainstream success in the 1980s, was more controversial.[164][165] From the 1990s there were increasing numbers of acts who attempted to avoid the Christian band label, preferring to be seen as groups who were also Christians, including P.O.D and Collective Soul.[166]
Punk era[edit]
Punk rock[edit]
Patti Smith, performing in 1976
Punk rock was developed between 1974 and 1976 in the United States and the United Kingdom. Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now known as protopunk music, punk rock bands eschewed the perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock.[167] They created fast, hard-edged music, typically with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. Punk embraces a DIY (do it yourself) ethic, with many bands self-producing their recordings and distributing them through informal channels.[168]
By late 1976, acts such as the Ramones and Patti Smith, in New York City, and the Sex Pistols and the Clash, in London, were recognized as the vanguard of a new musical movement.[167] The following year saw punk rock spreading around the world. Punk quickly, though briefly, became a major cultural phenomenon in the United Kingdom. For the most part, punk took root in local scenes that tended to reject association with the mainstream. An associated punk subculture emerged, expressing youthful rebellion and characterized by distinctive clothing styles and a variety of anti-authoritarian ideologies.[169]
By the beginning of the 1980s, faster, more aggressive styles such as hardcore and Oi! had become the predominant mode of punk rock.[170] This has resulted in several evolved strains of hardcore punk, such as D-beat (a distortion-heavy subgenre influenced by the UK band Discharge), anarcho-punk (such as Crass), grindcore (such as Napalm Death), and crust punk.[171] Musicians identifying with or inspired by punk also pursued a broad range of other variations, giving rise to New wave, post-punk and the alternative rock movement.[167]
New wave[edit]
Deborah Harry from the band Blondie, performing at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto in 1977
Although punk rock was a significant social and musical phenomenon, it achieved less in the way of record sales (being distributed by small specialty labels such as Stiff Records),[172] or American radio airplay (as the radio scene continued to be dominated by mainstream formats such as disco and album-oriented rock).[173] Punk rock had attracted devotees from the art and collegiate world and soon bands sporting a more literate, arty approach, such as Talking Heads and Devo began to infiltrate the punk scene; in some quarters the description 'new wave' began to be used to differentiate these less overtly punk bands.[174] Record executives, who had been mostly mystified by the punk movement, recognized the potential of the more accessible new wave acts and began aggressively signing and marketing any band that could claim a remote connection to punk or new wave.[175] Many of these bands, such as the Cars and the Go-Go's can be seen as pop bands marketed as new wave;[176] other existing acts, including the Police, the Pretenders and Elvis Costello, used the new wave movement as the springboard for relatively long and critically successful careers,[177] while 'skinny tie' bands exemplified by the Knack,[178] or the photogenic Blondie, began as punk acts and moved into more commercial territory.[179]
Between 1979 and 1985, influenced by Kraftwerk, Yellow Magic Orchestra, David Bowie and Gary Numan, British new wave went in the direction of such New Romantics as Spandau Ballet, Ultravox, Japan, Duran Duran, A Flock of Seagulls, Culture Club, Talk Talk and the Eurythmics, sometimes using the synthesizer to replace all other instruments.[180] This period coincided with the rise of MTV and led to a great deal of exposure for this brand of synth-pop, creating what has been characterised as a second British Invasion.[181] Some more traditional rock bands adapted to the video age and profited from MTV's airplay, most obviously Dire Straits, whose 'Money for Nothing' gently poked fun at the station, despite the fact that it had helped make them international stars,[182] but in general, guitar-oriented rock was commercially eclipsed.[183]
Post-punk[edit]
U2 performing on the Joshua Tree Tour 2017
If hardcore most directly pursued the stripped down aesthetic of punk, and new wave came to represent its commercial wing, post-punk emerged in the later 1970s and early 1980s as its more artistic and challenging side. Major influences beside punk bands were the Velvet Underground, Frank Zappa and Captain Beefheart, and the New York-based no wave scene which placed an emphasis on performance, including bands such as James Chance and the Contortions, DNA and Sonic Youth.[184] Early contributors to the genre included the US bands Pere Ubu, Devo, the Residents and Talking Heads.[184]
The first wave of British post-punk included Gang of Four, Siouxsie and the Banshees and Joy Division, who placed less emphasis on art than their US counterparts and more on the dark emotional qualities of their music.[184] Bands like Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bauhaus, the Cure, and the Sisters of Mercy, moved increasingly in this direction to found Gothic rock, which had become the basis of a major sub-culture by the early 1980s.[185] Similar emotional territory was pursued by Australian acts like the Birthday Party and Nick Cave.[184] Members of Bauhaus and Joy Division explored new stylistic territory as Love and Rockets and New Order respectively.[184] Another early post-punk movement was the industrial music[186] developed by British bands Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire, and New York-based Suicide, using a variety of electronic and sampling techniques that emulated the sound of industrial production and which would develop into a variety of forms of post-industrial music in the 1980s.[187]
The second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, including the Fall, the Pop Group, the Mekons, Echo and the Bunnymen and the Teardrop Explodes, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes.[184] Arguably the most successful band to emerge from post-punk was Ireland's U2, who incorporated elements of religious imagery together with political commentary into their often anthemic music, and by the late 1980s had become one of the biggest bands in the world.[188] Although many post-punk bands continued to record and perform, it declined as a movement in the mid-1980s as acts disbanded or moved off to explore other musical areas, but it has continued to influence the development of rock music and has been seen as a major element in the creation of the alternative rock movement.[189]
Heartland rock[edit]
Bruce Springsteen in East Berlin in 1988
American working-class oriented heartland rock, characterized by a straightforward musical style, and a concern with the lives of ordinary, blue-collar American people, developed in the second half of the 1970s. The term heartland rock was first used to describe Midwesternarena rock groups like Kansas, REO Speedwagon and Styx, but which came to be associated with a more socially concerned form of roots rock more directly influenced by folk, country and rock and roll.[190] It has been seen as an American Midwest and Rust Belt counterpart to West Coast country rock and the Southern rock of the American South.[191] Led by figures who had initially been identified with punk and New Wave, it was most strongly influenced by acts such as Bob Dylan, the Byrds, Creedence Clearwater Revival and Van Morrison, and the basic rock of 1960s garage and the Rolling Stones.[192]
Exemplified by the commercial success of singer songwriters Bruce Springsteen, Bob Seger, and Tom Petty, along with less widely known acts such as Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes and Joe Grushecky and the Houserockers, it was partly a reaction to post-industrial urban decline in the East and Mid-West, often dwelling on issues of social disintegration and isolation, beside a form of good-time rock and roll revivalism.[192] The genre reached its commercial, artistic and influential peak in the mid-1980s, with Springsteen's Born in the USA (1984), topping the charts worldwide and spawning a series of top ten singles, together with the arrival of artists including John Mellencamp, Steve Earle and more gentle singer-songwriters such as Bruce Hornsby.[192] It can also be heard as an influence on artists as diverse as Billy Joel,[193]Kid Rock[194] and the Killers.[195]
Heartland rock faded away as a recognized genre by the early 1990s, as rock music in general, and blue-collar and white working class themes in particular, lost influence with younger audiences, and as heartland's artists turned to more personal works.[192] Many heartland rock artists continue to record today with critical and commercial success, most notably Bruce Springsteen, Tom Petty, and John Mellencamp, although their works have become more personal and experimental and no longer fit easily into a single genre. Newer artists whose music would perhaps have been labeled heartland rock had it been released in the 1970s or 1980s, such as Missouri's Bottle Rockets and Illinois' Uncle Tupelo, often find themselves labeled alt-country.[196]
Emergence of alternative rock[edit]
R.E.M. was a successful alternative rock band in the 1980s/90s
The term alternative rock was coined in the early 1980s to describe rock artists who did not fit into the mainstream genres of the time. Bands dubbed 'alternative' had no unified style, but were all seen as distinct from mainstream music. Alternative bands were linked by their collective debt to punk rock, through hardcore, New Wave or the post-punk movements.[197] Important alternative rock bands of the 1980s in the US included R.E.M., Hüsker Dü, Jane's Addiction, Sonic Youth, and the Pixies,[197] and in the UK the Cure, New Order, the Jesus and Mary Chain, and the Smiths.[198] Artists were largely confined to independent record labels, building an extensive underground music scene based on college radio, fanzines, touring, and word-of-mouth.[199] They rejected the dominant synth-pop of the early 1980s, marking a return to group-based guitar rock.[200][201][202]
Few of these early bands achieved mainstream success, although exceptions to this rule include R.E.M., the Smiths, and the Cure. Despite a general lack of spectacular album sales, the original alternative rock bands exerted a considerable influence on the generation of musicians who came of age in the 1980s and ended up breaking through to mainstream success in the 1990s. Styles of alternative rock in the U.S. during the 1980s included jangle pop, associated with the early recordings of R.E.M., which incorporated the ringing guitars of mid-1960s pop and rock, and college rock, used to describe alternative bands that began in the college circuit and college radio, including acts such as 10,000 Maniacs and the Feelies.[197] In the UK Gothic rock was dominant in the early 1980s, but by the end of the decade indie or dream pop[203] like Primal Scream, Bogshed, Half Man Half Biscuit and the Wedding Present, and what were dubbed shoegaze bands like My Bloody Valentine, Slowdive, Ride and Lush.[204] Particularly vibrant was the Madchester scene, produced such bands as Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets and the Stone Roses.[198][205] The next decade would see the success of grunge in the United States and Britpop in the United Kingdom, bringing alternative rock into the mainstream.
Alternative[edit]
Grunge[edit]
Nirvana in 1992
Disaffected by commercialized and highly produced pop and rock in the mid-1980s, bands in Washington state (particularly in the Seattle area) formed a new style of rock which sharply contrasted with the mainstream music of the time.[206] The developing genre came to be known as 'grunge', a term descriptive of the dirty sound of the music and the unkempt appearance of most musicians, who actively rebelled against the over-groomed images of other artists.[206] Grunge fused elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal into a single sound, and made heavy use of guitar distortion, fuzz and feedback.[206] The lyrics were typically apathetic and angst-filled, and often concerned themes such as social alienation and entrapment, although it was also known for its dark humor and parodies of commercial rock.[206]
Bands such as Green River, Soundgarden, Melvins and Skin Yard pioneered the genre, with Mudhoney becoming the most successful by the end of the decade. Grunge remained largely a local phenomenon until 1991, when Nirvana's album Nevermind became a huge success, containing the anthemic song 'Smells Like Teen Spirit'.[207]Nevermind was more melodic than its predecessors, by signing to Geffen Records the band was one of the first to employ traditional corporate promotion and marketing mechanisms such as an MTV video, in store displays and the use of radio 'consultants' who promoted airplay at major mainstream rock stations. During 1991 and 1992, other grunge albums such as Pearl Jam's Ten, Soundgarden's Badmotorfinger and Alice in Chains' Dirt, along with the Temple of the Dog album featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden, became among the 100 top-selling albums.[208] Major record labels signed most of the remaining grunge bands in Seattle, while a second influx of acts moved to the city in the hope of success.[209] However, with the death of Kurt Cobain and the subsequent break-up of Nirvana in 1994, touring problems for Pearl Jam and the departure of Alice in Chains' lead singer Layne Staley in 1998, the genre began to decline, partly to be overshadowed by Britpop and more commercial sounding post-grunge.[210]
Britpop[edit]
Oasis performing in 2005
Britpop emerged from the British alternative rock scene of the early 1990s and was characterised by bands particularly influenced by British guitar music of the 1960s and 1970s.[198]The Smiths were a major influence, as were bands of the Madchester scene, which had dissolved in the early 1990s.[80] The movement has been seen partly as a reaction against various U.S.-based, musical and cultural trends in the late 1980s and early 1990s, particularly the grunge phenomenon and as a reassertion of a British rock identity.[198] Britpop was varied in style, but often used catchy tunes and hooks, beside lyrics with particularly British concerns and the adoption of the iconography of the 1960s British Invasion, including the symbols of British identity previously utilised by the mods.[211] It was launched around 1992 with releases by groups such as Suede and Blur, who were soon joined by others including Oasis, Pulp and Supergrass, who produced a series of top ten albums and singles.[198] For a while the contest between Blur and Oasis was built by the popular press into the 'Battle of Britpop', initially won by Blur, but with Oasis achieving greater long-term and international success, directly influencing later Britpop bands, such as Ocean Colour Scene and Kula Shaker.[212] Britpop groups brought British alternative rock into the mainstream and formed the backbone of a larger British cultural movement known as Cool Britannia.[213] Although its more popular bands, particularly Blur and Oasis, were able to spread their commercial success overseas, especially to the United States, the movement had largely fallen apart by the end of the decade.[198]
Post-grunge[edit]
Foo Fighters performing an acoustic show in 2007
The term post-grunge was coined for the generation of bands that followed the emergence into the mainstream and subsequent hiatus of the Seattle grunge bands. Post-grunge bands emulated their attitudes and music, but with a more radio-friendly commercially oriented sound.[210] Often they worked through the major labels and came to incorporate diverse influences from jangle pop, pop-punk, alternative metal or hard rock.[210] The term post-grunge originally was meant to be pejorative, suggesting that they were simply musically derivative, or a cynical response to an 'authentic' rock movement.[214] Originally, grunge bands that emerged when grunge was mainstream and were suspected of emulating the grunge sound were pejoratively labelled as post-grunge.[214] From 1994, former Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl's new band, the Foo Fighters, helped popularize the genre and define its parameters.[215]
Some post-grunge bands, like Candlebox, were from Seattle, but the subgenre was marked by a broadening of the geographical base of grunge, with bands like Los Angeles' Audioslave, and Georgia's Collective Soul and beyond the US to Australia's Silverchair and Britain's Bush, who all cemented post-grunge as one of the most commercially viable subgenres of the late 1990s.[197][210] Although male bands predominated post-grunge, female solo artist Alanis Morissette's 1995 album Jagged Little Pill, labelled as post-grunge, also became a multi-platinum hit.[216] Post-grunge morphed during the late 1990s as post-grunge bands like Creed and Nickelback emerged.[214] Bands like Creed and Nickelback took post-grunge into the 21st century with considerable commercial success, abandoning most of the angst and anger of the original movement for more conventional anthems, narratives and romantic songs, and were followed in this vein by newer acts including Shinedown, Seether, 3 Doors Down and Puddle of Mudd.[214]
Pop punk[edit]
Green Day performing in 2013
The origins of 1990s pop punk can be seen in the more song-oriented bands of the 1970s punk movement like Buzzcocks and the Clash, commercially successful new wave acts such as the Jam and the Undertones, and the more hardcore-influenced elements of alternative rock in the 1980s.[217] Pop-punk tends to use power-pop melodies and chord changes with speedy punk tempos and loud guitars.[218] Punk music provided the inspiration for some California-based bands on independent labels in the early 1990s, including Rancid, Pennywise, Weezer and Green Day.[217] In 1994 Green Day moved to a major label and produced the album Dookie, which found a new, largely teenage, audience and proved a surprise diamond-selling success, leading to a series of hit singles, including two number ones in the US.[197] They were soon followed by the eponymous debut from Weezer, which spawned three top ten singles in the US.[219] This success opened the door for the multi-platinum sales of metallic punk band the Offspring with Smash (1994).[197] This first wave of pop punk reached its commercial peak with Green Day's Nimrod (1997) and The Offspring's Americana (1998).[220]
A second wave of pop punk was spearheaded by Blink-182, with their breakthrough album Enema of the State (1999), followed by bands such as Good Charlotte, Simple Plan and Sum 41, who made use of humour in their videos and had a more radio-friendly tone to their music, while retaining the speed, some of the attitude and even the look of 1970s punk.[217] Later pop-punk bands, including All Time Low, 5 Seconds Of Summer, the All-American Rejects and Fall Out Boy, had a sound that has been described as closer to 1980s hardcore, while still achieving commercial success.[217]
Indie rock[edit]
Lo-fi indie rock band Pavement
In the 1980s the terms indie rock and alternative rock were used interchangeably.[221] By the mid-1990s, as elements of the movement began to attract mainstream interest, particularly grunge and then Britpop, post-grunge and pop-punk, the term alternative began to lose its meaning.[221] Those bands following the less commercial contours of the scene were increasingly referred to by the label indie.[221] They characteristically attempted to retain control of their careers by releasing albums on their own or small independent labels, while relying on touring, word-of-mouth, and airplay on independent or college radio stations for promotion.[221] Linked by an ethos more than a musical approach, the indie rock movement encompassed a wide range of styles, from hard-edged, grunge-influenced bands like the Cranberries and Superchunk, through do-it-yourself experimental bands like Pavement, to punk-folk singers such as Ani DiFranco.[197][198] It has been noted that indie rock has a relatively high proportion of female artists compared with preceding rock genres, a tendency exemplified by the development of feminist-informed Riot Grrrl music.[222] Many countries have developed an extensive local indie scene, flourishing with bands with enough popularity to survive inside the respective country, but virtually unknown outside them.[223]
By the end of the 1990s many recognisable subgenres, most with their origins in the late 1980s alternative movement, were included under the umbrella of indie. Lo-fi eschewed polished recording techniques for a D.I.Y. ethos and was spearheaded by Beck, Sebadoh and Pavement.[197] The work of Talk Talk and Slint helped inspire both post rock, an experimental style influenced by jazz and electronic music, pioneered by Bark Psychosis and taken up by acts such as Tortoise, Stereolab, and Laika,[224][225] as well as leading to more dense and complex, guitar-based math rock, developed by acts like Polvo and Chavez.[226] Space rock looked back to progressive roots, with drone heavy and minimalist acts like Spacemen 3, the two bands created out of its split, Spectrum and Spiritualized, and later groups including Flying Saucer Attack, Godspeed You! Black Emperor and Quickspace.[227] In contrast, Sadcore emphasised pain and suffering through melodic use of acoustic and electronic instrumentation in the music of bands like American Music Club and Red House Painters,[228] while the revival of Baroque pop reacted against lo-fi and experimental music by placing an emphasis on melody and classical instrumentation, with artists like Arcade Fire, Belle and Sebastian and Rufus Wainwright.[229]
Alternative metal, rap rock and nu metal[edit]
Alternative metal emerged from the hardcore scene of alternative rock in the US in the later 1980s, but gained a wider audience after grunge broke into the mainstream in the early 1990s.[230] Early alternative metal bands mixed a wide variety of genres with hardcore and heavy metal sensibilities, with acts like Jane's Addiction and Primus utilizing progressive rock, Soundgarden and Corrosion of Conformity using garage punk, the Jesus Lizard and Helmet mixing noise rock, Ministry and Nine Inch Nails influenced by industrial music, Monster Magnet moving into psychedelia, Pantera, Sepultura and White Zombie creating groove metal, while Biohazard and Faith No More turned to hip hop and rap.[230]
Linkin Park performing in 2009
Hip hop had gained attention from rock acts in the early 1980s, including The Clash with 'The Magnificent Seven' (1980) and Blondie with 'Rapture' (1980).[231][232] Early crossover acts included Run DMC and the Beastie Boys.[233]Detroit rapper Esham became known for his 'acid rap' style, which fused rapping with a sound that was often based in rock and heavy metal.[234][235] Rappers who sampled rock songs included Ice-T, The Fat Boys, LL Cool J, Public Enemy and Whodini.[236] The mixing of thrash metal and rap was pioneered by Anthrax on their 1987 comedy-influenced single 'I'm the Man'.[236]
In 1990, Faith No More broke into the mainstream with their single 'Epic', often seen as the first truly successful combination of heavy metal with rap.[237] This paved the way for the success of existing bands like 24-7 Spyz and Living Colour, and new acts including Rage Against the Machine and Red Hot Chili Peppers, who all fused rock and hip hop among other influences.[236][238] Among the first wave of performers to gain mainstream success as rap rock were 311,[239]Bloodhound Gang,[240] and Kid Rock.[241] A more metallic sound – nu metal – was pursued by bands including Limp Bizkit, Korn and Slipknot.[236] Later in the decade this style, which contained a mix of grunge, punk, metal, rap and turntable scratching, spawned a wave of successful bands like Linkin Park, P.O.D. and Staind, who were often classified as rap metal or nu metal, the first of which are the best-selling band of the genre.[242]
In 2001, nu metal reached its peak with albums like Staind's Break the Cycle, P.O.D's Satellite, Slipknot's Iowa and Linkin Park's Hybrid Theory. New bands also emerged like Disturbed, Godsmack and Papa Roach, whose major label début Infest became a platinum hit.[243] Korn's long-awaited fifth album Untouchables, and Papa Roach's second album Lovehatetragedy, did not sell as well as their previous releases, while nu metal bands were played more infrequently on rock radio stations and MTV began focusing on pop punk and emo.[244] Since then, many bands have changed to a more conventional hard rock, heavy metal, or electronic music sound.[244]
Post-Britpop[edit]
Travis in 2007
From about 1997, as dissatisfaction grew with the concept of Cool Britannia, and Britpop as a movement began to dissolve, emerging bands began to avoid the Britpop label while still producing music derived from it.[245][246] Many of these bands tended to mix elements of British traditional rock (or British trad rock),[247] particularly the Beatles, Rolling Stones and Small Faces,[248] with American influences, including post-grunge.[249][250] Drawn from across the United Kingdom (with several important bands emerging from the north of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), the themes of their music tended to be less parochially centered on British, English and London life and more introspective than had been the case with Britpop at its height.[251][252] This, beside a greater willingness to engage with the American press and fans, may have helped some of them in achieving international success.[253]
Post-Britpop bands have been seen as presenting the image of the rock star as an ordinary person and their increasingly melodic music was criticised for being bland or derivative.[254] Post-Britpop bands like Travis from The Man Who (1999), Stereophonics from Performance and Cocktails (1999), Feeder from Echo Park (2001), and particularly Coldplay from their debut album Parachutes (2000), achieved much wider international success than most of the Britpop groups that had preceded them, and were some of the most commercially successful acts of the late 1990s and early 2000s, arguably providing a launchpad for the subsequent garage rock or post-punk revival, which has also been seen as a reaction to their introspective brand of rock.[250][255][256][257]
2000s–present[edit]
Post-hardcore and emo[edit]
Post-hardcore developed in the US, particularly in the Chicago and Washington, DC areas, in the early to mid-1980s, with bands that were inspired by the do-it-yourself ethics and guitar-heavy music of hardcore punk, but influenced by post-punk, adopting longer song formats, more complex musical structures and sometimes more melodic vocal styles.[258]
Emo also emerged from the hardcore scene in 1980s Washington, D.C., initially as 'emocore', used as a term to describe bands who favored expressive vocals over the more common abrasive, barking style.[259] The early emo scene operated as an underground, with short-lived bands releasing small-run vinyl records on tiny independent labels.[259] Emo broke into mainstream culture in the early 2000s with the platinum-selling success of Jimmy Eat World's Bleed American (2001) and Dashboard Confessional's The Places You Have Come to Fear the Most (2003).[260] The new emo had a much more mainstream sound than in the 1990s and a far greater appeal amongst adolescents than its earlier incarnations.[260] At the same time, use of the term emo expanded beyond the musical genre, becoming associated with fashion, a hairstyle and any music that expressed emotion.[261] By 2003 post-hardcore bands had also caught the attention of major labels and began to enjoy mainstream success in the album charts.[citation needed] A number of these bands were seen as a more aggressive offshoot of emo and given the often vague label of screamo.[262]
Garage rock/post-punk revival[edit]
The Strokes performing in 2006
In the early 2000s, a new group of bands that played a stripped down and back-to-basics version of guitar rock, emerged into the mainstream. They were variously characterised as part of a garage rock, post-punk or new wave revival.[263][264][265][266] Because the bands came from across the globe, cited diverse influences (from traditional blues, through New Wave to grunge), and adopted differing styles of dress, their unity as a genre has been disputed.[267] There had been attempts to revive garage rock and elements of punk in the 1980s and 1990s and by 2000 scenes had grown up in several countries.[268]
The commercial breakthrough from these scenes was led by four bands: the Strokes, who emerged from the New York club scene with their début album Is This It (2001); the White Stripes, from Detroit, with their third album White Blood Cells (2001); the Hives from Sweden after their compilation album Your New Favourite Band (2001); and the Vines from Australia with Highly Evolved (2002).[269] They were christened by the media as the 'The' bands, and dubbed 'The saviours of rock 'n' roll', leading to accusations of hype.[270] A second wave of bands that gained international recognition due to the movement included Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, the Killers, Interpol and Kings of Leon from the US,[271]the Libertines, Arctic Monkeys, Bloc Party, Kaiser Chiefs and Franz Ferdinand from the UK,[272]Jet from Australia,[273] and the Datsuns and the D4 from New Zealand.[274]
Digital electronic rock[edit]
In the 2000s, as computer technology became more accessible and music software advanced, it became possible to create high quality music using little more than a single laptop computer.[275] This resulted in a massive increase in the amount of home-produced electronic music available to the general public via the expanding internet,[276] and new forms of performance such as laptronica[275] and live coding.[277] These techniques also began to be used by existing bands and by developing genres that mixed rock with digital techniques and sounds, including indie electronic, electroclash, dance-punk and new rave.[citation needed]
Social impact[edit]
Different subgenres of rock were adopted by, and became central to, the identity of a large number of sub-cultures. In the 1950s and 1960s, respectively, British youths adopted the Teddy Boy and Rocker subcultures, which revolved around US rock and roll.[278] The counterculture of the 1960s was closely associated with psychedelic rock.[278] The mid-1970s punk subculture began in the US, but it was given a distinctive look by British designer Vivienne Westwood, a look which spread worldwide.[279] Out of the punk scene, the Goth and Emo subcultures grew, both of which presented distinctive visual styles.[280]
The 1969 Woodstock Festival was seen as a celebration of the countercultural lifestyle.
When an international rock culture developed, it supplanted cinema as the major sources of fashion influence.[281] Paradoxically, followers of rock music have often mistrusted the world of fashion, which has been seen as elevating image above substance.[281] Rock fashions have been seen as combining elements of different cultures and periods, as well as expressing divergent views on sexuality and gender, and rock music in general has been noted and criticised for facilitating greater sexual freedom.[281][282] Rock has also been associated with various forms of drug use, including the amphetamines taken by mods in the early to mid-1960s, through the LSD, mescaline, hashish and other hallucinogenic drugs linked with psychedelic rock in the late 1960s and early 1970s; and sometimes to cannabis, cocaine and heroin, all of which have been eulogised in song.[283][284]
Rock has been credited with changing attitudes to race by opening up African-American culture to white audiences; but at the same time, rock has been accused of appropriating and exploiting that culture.[285][286] While rock music has absorbed many influences and introduced Western audiences to different musical traditions,[287] the global spread of rock music has been interpreted as a form of cultural imperialism.[288] Rock music inherited the folk tradition of protest song, making political statements on subjects such as war, religion, poverty, civil rights, justice and the environment.[289] Political activism reached a mainstream peak with the 'Do They Know It's Christmas?' single (1984) and Live Aid concert for Ethiopia in 1985, which, while successfully raising awareness of world poverty and funds for aid, have also been criticised (along with similar events), for providing a stage for self-aggrandisement and increased profits for the rock stars involved.[290]
Since its early development rock music has been associated with rebellion against social and political norms, most obviously in early rock and roll's rejection of an adult-dominated culture, the counterculture's rejection of consumerism and conformity and punk's rejection of all forms of social convention,[291] however, it can also be seen as providing a means of commercial exploitation of such ideas and of diverting youth away from political action.[292]
Role of women[edit]
Suzi Quatro is a singer, bassist and bandleader. When she launched her career in 1973, she was one of the few prominent women instrumentalists and bandleaders.
Professional women instrumentalists are uncommon in rock genres such as heavy metal. According to Schaap and Berkers, 'playing in a band is largely a male homosocial activity, that is, learning to play in a band is largely a peer-based ... experience, shaped by existing sex-segregated friendship networks.[293] They note that rock music 'is often defined as a form of male rebellion vis-à-vis female bedroom culture.'[294] (The theory of 'bedroom culture' argues that society influences girls to not engage in crime and deviance by virtually trapping them in their bedroom; it was developed by a sociologist named Angela McRobbie.) In popular music, there has been a gendered 'distinction between public (male) and private (female) participation' in music.[294] 'several scholars have argued that men exclude women from bands or from the bands' rehearsals, recordings, performances, and other social activities'.[295] 'Women are mainly regarded as passive and private consumers of allegedly slick, prefabricated – hence, inferior – pop music ..., excluding them from participating as high status rock musicians'.[295] One of the reasons that there are rarely mixed gender bands is that 'bands operate as tight-knit units in which homosocial solidarity – social bonds between people of the same sex ... – plays a crucial role'.[295] In the 1960s rock music scene, 'singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument ... simply wasn't done'.[296]
'The rebellion of rock music was largely a male rebellion; the women – often, in the 1950s and '60s, girls in their teens – in rock usually sang songs as personæ utterly dependent on their macho boyfriends ...'. Philip Auslander says that 'Although there were many women in rock by the late 1960s, most performed only as singers, a traditionally feminine position in popular music'. Though some women played instruments in American all-female garage rock bands, none of these bands achieved more than regional success. So they 'did not provide viable templates for women's on-going participation in rock'.[297] In relation to the gender composition of heavy metal bands, it has been said that '[h]eavy metal performers are almost exclusively male'[298] '...at least until the mid-1980s'[299] apart from '...exceptions such as Girlschool'.[298] However, '...now [in the 2010s] maybe more than ever–strong metal women have put up their dukes and got down to it',[300] 'carv[ing] out a considerable place for [them]selves.'[301] When Suzi Quatro emerged in 1973, 'no other prominent female musician worked in rock simultaneously as a singer, instrumentalist, songwriter, and bandleader'.[297] According to Auslander, she was 'kicking down the male door in rock and roll and proving that a female musician ... and this is a point I am extremely concerned about ... could play as well if not better than the boys'.[297]
An all-female band is a musical group in genres such as rock and blues which is exclusively composed of female musicians. This is distinct from a girl group, in which the female members are solely vocalists, though this terminology is not universally followed.[302]
See also[edit]
- Rock music – Wikipedia book
Notes[edit]
- ^The terms 'pop-rock' and 'power pop' have been used to describe more commercially successful music that uses elements from, or the form of, rock music.[50] Pop-rock has been defined as an 'upbeat variety of rock music represented by artists such as Elton John, Paul McCartney, the Everly Brothers, Rod Stewart, Chicago, and Peter Frampton.'[51] The term power pop was coined by Pete Townshend of the Who in 1966, but not much used until it was applied to bands like Badfinger in the 1970s, who proved some of the most commercially successful of the period.[52]
- ^Having died down in the late 1950s, doo wop enjoyed a revival in the same period, with hits for acts like the Marcels, the Capris, Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs, and Shep and the Limelights.[38] The rise of girl groups like the Chantels, the Shirelles and the Crystals placed an emphasis on harmonies and polished production that was in contrast to earlier rock and roll.[56] Some of the most significant girl group hits were products of the Brill Building Sound, named after the block in New York where many songwriters were based, which included the number 1 hit for the Shirelles 'Will You Love Me Tomorrow' in 1960, penned by the partnership of Gerry Goffin and Carole King.[57]
- ^All of these elements, including the close harmonies of doo wop and girl groups, the carefully crafted song-writing of the Brill Building Sound and the polished production values of soul, have been seen as influencing the Merseybeat sound, particularly the early work of The Beatles, and through them the form of later rock music.[63]
- ^Only the Beach Boys were able to sustain a creative career into the mid-1960s, producing a string of hit singles and albums, including the highly regarded Pet Sounds in 1966, which made them, arguably, the only American rock or pop act that could rival The Beatles.[66]
- ^In Detroit, garage rock's legacy remained alive into the early 1970s, with bands such as the MC5 and the Stooges, who employed a much more aggressive approach to the form. These bands began to be labelled punk rock and are now often seen as proto-punk or proto-hard rock.[92]
References[edit]
- ^ abW.E. Studwell and D.F. Lonergan, The Classic Rock and Roll Reader: Rock Music from its Beginnings to the mid-1970s (Abingdon: Routledge, 1999), ISBN0-7890-0151-9
- ^Pop/Rock at AllMusic
- ^Wyman, Bill (20 December 2016). 'Chuck Berry Invented the Idea of Rock and Roll'. Vulture.com. New York Media, LLC.
- ^J.M. Curtis, Rock Eras: Interpretations of Music and Society, 1954–1984 (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1987), ISBN0-87972-369-6, pp. 68–73.
- ^ abMichael Campbell & James Brody, Rock and Roll: An Introduction, pp. 80–81
- ^R.C. Brewer, 'Bass Guitar', in Shepherd, 2003, p. 56.
- ^R. Mattingly, 'Drum Set', in Shepherd, 2003, p. 361.
- ^P. Théberge, Any Sound you can Imagine: Making Music/Consuming Technology (Middletown, CT, Wesleyan University Press, 1997), ISBN0-8195-6309-9, pp. 69–70.
- ^D. Laing, 'Quartet', in Shepherd, 2003, p. 56.
- ^ abcC. Ammer, The Facts on File Dictionary of Music (New York: Infobase, 4th edn., 2004), ISBN0-8160-5266-2, pp. 251–52.
- ^Michael Campbell & James Brody (2007), Rock and Roll: An Introduction, p. 117
- ^J. Covach, 'From craft to art: formal structure in the music of the Beatles', in K. Womack and Todd F. Davis, eds, Reading the Beatles: Cultural Studies, Literary Criticism, and the Fab Four (New York: SUNY Press, 2006), ISBN0-7914-6715-5, p. 40.
- ^T. Gracyk, Rhythm and Noise: an Aesthetics of Rock, (London: I.B. Tauris, 1996), ISBN1-86064-090-7, p. xi.
- ^P. Wicke, Rock Music: Culture, Aesthetics and Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), ISBN0-521-39914-9, p. x.
- ^ abcChristgau, Robert (1981). 'The Decade'. Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies. Ticknor & Fields. ISBN0899190251. Retrieved 6 April 2019 – via robertchristgau.com.
- ^B.A. Farber, Rock 'n' roll Wisdom: What Psychologically Astute Lyrics Teach About Life and Love (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007), ISBN0-275-99164-4, pp. xxvi–xxviii.
- ^Christgau, Robert; et al. (2000). McKeen, William (ed.). Rock & Roll Is Here to Stay: An Anthology. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 564–65, 567. ISBN0-393-04700-8.
- ^C. McDonald, Rush, Rock Music and the Middle Class: Dreaming in Middletown (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2009), ISBN0-253-35408-0, pp. 108–09.
- ^S. Waksman, Instruments of Desire: the Electric Guitar and the Shaping of Musical Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), ISBN0-674-00547-3, p. 176.
- ^S. Frith, Taking Popular Music Seriously: Selected Essays (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN0-7546-2679-2, pp. 43–44.
- ^Christgau, Robert (11 June 1972). 'Tuning Out, Tuning In, Turning On'. Newsday. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
- ^ abcdT. Warner, Pop Music: Technology and Creativity: Trevor Horn and the Digital Revolution (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), ISBN0-7546-3132-X, pp. 3–4.
- ^R. Beebe, D. Fulbrook and B. Saunders, 'Introduction' in R. Beebe, D. Fulbrook, B. Saunders, eds, Rock Over the Edge: Transformations in Popular Music Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), ISBN0-8223-2900-X, p. 7.
- ^Christgau, Robert (1990). 'Introduction: Canons and Listening Lists'. Christgau's Record Guide: The '80s. Pantheon Books. ISBN0-679-73015-X. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
- ^R. Unterberger, 'Birth of Rock & Roll', in Bogdanov et al., 2002, pp. 1303–04.
- ^T.E. Scheurer, American Popular Music: The Age of Rock (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1989), ISBN0-87972-468-4, p. 170.
- ^Robert Palmer, 'Church of the Sonic Guitar', pp. 13–38 in Anthony DeCurtis, Present Tense, Duke University Press, 1992, p. 19. ISBN0-8223-1265-4.
- ^Bill Dahl, 'Jimmy Preston', Allmusic, archived from the original on 27 April 2012
- ^ abM. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: and the Beat Goes on (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), ISBN0-495-50530-7, pp. 157–58.
- ^Gilliland 1969, show 55, track 2.
- ^P. Browne, The Guide to United States Popular Culture (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 2001), ISBN0-87972-821-3, p. 358.
- ^N. McCormick (24 June 2004), 'The day Elvis changed the world', The Telegraph, archived from the original on 11 February 2011
- ^R.S. Denisoff, W.L. Schurk, Tarnished Gold: the Record Industry Revisited (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 3rd edn., 1986), ISBN0-88738-618-0, p. 13.
- ^'Rockabilly', Allmusic, archived from the original on 11 February 2011.
- ^ abR. Shuker, Popular Music: the Key Concepts (Abingdon: Routledge, 2nd edn., 2005), ISBN0-415-34770-X, p. 35.
- ^Gilliland 1969, show 5, track 3.
- ^Gilliland 1969, show 13.
- ^ abR. Unterberger, 'Doo Wop', in Bogdanov et.al., 2002, pp. 1306–07.
- ^J. M. Curtis, Rock Eras: Interpretations of Music and Society, 1954–1984 (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1987), ISBN0-87972-369-6, p. 73.
- ^Aswell, Tom (2010). Louisiana Rocks! The True Genesis of Rock & Roll. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Company. pp. 61–65. ISBN1-58980-677-8.
- ^ abRobert Palmer, 'Church of the Sonic Guitar', pp. 13–38 in Anthony DeCurtis, Present Tense, Duke University Press, 1992, pp. 24–27. ISBN0-8223-1265-4.
- ^Collis, John (2002). Chuck Berry: The Biography. Aurum. p. 38. ISBN978-1-85410-873-9.
- ^Hicks, Michael (2000). Sixties Rock: Garage, Psychedelic, and Other Satisfactions. University of Illinois Press. p. 17. ISBN0-252-06915-3.
- ^R. F. Schwartz, How Britain Got the Blues: the Transmission and Reception of American Blues Style in the United Kingdom (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN0-7546-5580-6, p. 22.
- ^J. Roberts, The Beatles (Mineappolis, MN: Lerner Publications, 2001), ISBN0-8225-4998-0, p. 13.
- ^M. Campbell, ed., Popular Music in America: and the Beat Goes On (Boston: Cengage Learning, 3rd edn., 2008), ISBN0-495-50530-7, p. 99.
- ^ abS. Frith, 'Pop music' in S. Frith, W. Stray and J. Street, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN0-521-55660-0, pp. 93–108.
- ^ ab'Early Pop/Rock', Allmusic, archived from the original on 17 February 2011.
- ^R. Shuker, Understanding Popular Music (Abingdon: Routledge, 2nd edn., 2001), ISBN0-415-23509-X, pp. 8–10.
- ^R. Shuker, Popular Music: the Key Concepts (Abingdon: Routledge, 2nd edn., 2005), ISBN0-415-34770-X, p. 207.
- ^L. Starr and C. Waterman, American Popular Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn, 2007), ISBN0-19-530053-X, archived from the original on 17 February 2011.
- ^J.M. Borack, Shake Some Action: the Ultimate Power Pop Guide (Shake Some Action – PowerPop, 2007), ISBN0-9797714-0-4, p. 18.
- ^Gilliland 1969, shows 20–21.
- ^B. Bradby, 'Do-talk, don't-talk: the division of the subject in girl-group music' in S. Frith and A. Goodwin, eds, On Record: Rock, Pop, and the Written Word (Abingdon: Routledge, 1990), ISBN0-415-05306-4, p. 341.
- ^ abcK. Keightley, 'Reconsidering rock' in S. Frith, W. Straw and J. Street, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN0-521-55660-0, p. 116.
- ^R. Dale, Education and the State: Politics, Patriarchy and Practice (London: Taylor & Francis, 1981), ISBN0-905273-17-6, p. 106.
- ^R. Unterberger, 'Brill Building Sound', in Bogdanov et.al., 2002, pp. 1311–12.
- ^D. Hatch and S. Millward, From Blues to Rock: an Analytical History of Pop Music (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), ISBN0-7190-1489-1, p. 78.
- ^A.J. Millard, The Electric Guitar: a History of an American Icon (Baltimore, MD: JHU Press, 2004), ISBN0-8018-7862-4, p. 150.
- ^ abB. Eder, 'British Blues', in V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra, S.T. Erlewine, eds, All Music Guide to the Blues: The Definitive Guide to the Blues (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2003), ISBN0-87930-736-6, p. 700.
- ^Gilliland 1969, show 55, track 3; shows 15–17.
- ^R. Unterberger, 'Soul', in Bogdanov et al., 2002, pp. 1323–25.
- ^R. Unterberger, 'Merseybeat', in Bogdanov et.al., 2002, pp. 1319–20.
- ^ abJ. Blair, The Illustrated Discography of Surf Music, 1961–1965 (Ypsilanti, MI: Pierian Press, 2nd edn., 1985), ISBN0-87650-174-9, p. 2.
- ^J. Blair, The Illustrated Discography of Surf Music, 1961–1965 (Ypsilanti, MI: Pierian Press, 2nd edn., 1985), ISBN0-87650-174-9, p. 75.
- ^ abW. Ruhlman, et al., 'Beach Boys', in Bogdanov et al., 2002, pp. 71–75.
- ^R. Stakes, 'Those boys: the rise of Mersey beat', in S. Wade, ed., Gladsongs and Gatherings: Poetry and its Social Context in Liverpool Since the 1960s (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001), ISBN0-85323-727-1, pp. 157–66.
- ^I. Chambers, Urban Rhythms: Pop Music and Popular Culture (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985), ISBN0-333-34011-6, p. 75.
- ^J.R. Covach and G. MacDonald Boone, Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), ISBN0-19-510005-0, p. 60.
- ^ abR. Unterberger, 'British Invasion', in Bogdanov et al., 2002, pp. 1316–17.
- ^R. Unterberger, 'British R&B', in Bogdanov et al., 2002, pp. 1315–16.
- ^Gilliland 1969, show 28.
- ^ abI.A. Robbins, 'British Invasion', Encyclopædia Britannica, archived from the original on 17 February 2011
- ^H. Bill, The Book Of Beatle Lists (Poole, Dorset: Javelin, 1985), ISBN0-7137-1521-9, p. 66.
- ^ abGilliland 1969, show 29.
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- ^J. DeRogatis, Turn on your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2003), ISBN0-634-05548-8, p. 373.
- ^'New Wave/Post-Punk Revival', Allmusic, archived from the original on 16 February 2011.
- ^M. Roach, This Is It-: the First Biography of the Strokes (London: Omnibus Press, 2003), ISBN0-7119-9601-6, p. 86.
- ^E.J. Abbey, Garage Rock and its Roots: Musical Rebels and the Drive for Individuality (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006), ISBN0-7864-2564-4, pp. 108–12.
- ^P. Simpson, The Rough Guide to Cult Pop (London: Rough Guides, 2003), ISBN1-84353-229-8, p. 42.
- ^P. Buckley, The Rough Guide to Rock (London: Rough Guides, 3rd edn., 2003), ISBN1-84353-105-4, pp. 498–99, 1024–26, 1040–41, 1162–64.
- ^C. Smith, 101 Albums That Changed Popular Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), ISBN0-19-537371-5, p. 240.
- ^S.J. Blackman, Chilling Out: the Cultural Politics of Substance Consumption, Youth and Drug Policy (Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill International, 2004), ISBN0-335-20072-9, p. 90.
- ^D. Else, Great Britain (London: Lonely Planet, 2007), ISBN1-74104-565-7, p. 75.
- ^P. Smitz, C. Bain, S. Bao, S. Farfor, Australia (Footscray Victoria: Lonely Planet, 14th edn., 2005), ISBN1-74059-740-0, p. 58.
- ^C. Rawlings-Way, Lonely Planet New Zealand (Footscray Victoria: Lonely Planet, 14th edn., 2008), ISBN1-74104-816-8, p. 52.
- ^ abS. Emmerson, Living Electronic Music (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN0-7546-5548-2, pp. 80–81.
- ^R. Shuker, Popular Music: the Key Concepts (Abingdon: Routledge, 2nd edn., 2005), ISBN0-415-34770-X, pp. 145–48.
- ^S. Emmerson, Living Electronic Music (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), ISBN0-7546-5548-2, p. 115.
- ^ abM. Brake, Comparative Youth Culture: the Sociology of Youth Cultures and Youth Subcultures in America, Britain, and Canada (Abingdon: Routledge, 1990), ISBN0-415-05108-8, pp. 73–79, 90–100.
- ^P.A. Cunningham and S.V. Lab, Dress and Popular Culture (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1991), ISBN0-87972-507-9, p. 83.
- ^L.M.E. Goodlad and M. Bibby, Goth: Undead Subculture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), ISBN0-8223-3921-8.
- ^ abcS. Bruzzi and P. C. Gibson, Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations, and Analysis (Abingdon: Routledge, 2000), ISBN0-415-20685-5, p. 260.
- ^G. Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis MI: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), ISBN0-8166-3881-0, p. 123.
- ^R. Coomber, The Control of Drugs and Drug Users: Reason or Reaction? (Amsterdam: CRC Press, 1998), ISBN90-5702-188-9, p. 44.
- ^P. Peet, Under the Influence: the Disinformation Guide to Drugs (New York: The Disinformation Company, 2004), ISBN1-932857-00-1, p. 252.
- ^M. Fisher, Something in the Air: Radio, Rock, and the Revolution that Shaped a Generation (Marc Fisher, 2007), ISBN0-375-50907-0, p. 53.
- ^M.T. Bertrand, Race, Rock, and Elvis (Chicago IL: University of Illinois Press, 2000), ISBN0-252-02586-5, pp. 95–96.
- ^J. Fairley, 'The 'local' and 'global' in popular music' in S. Frith, W. Straw and J. Street, eds, The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), ISBN0-521-55660-0, pp. 272–89.
- ^R. Shuker, Understanding Popular Music (Abingdon: Routledge, 1994), ISBN0-415-10723-7, p. 44.
- ^T.E. Scheurer, American Popular Music: The Age of Rock (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1989), ISBN0-87972-468-4, pp. 119–20.
- ^D. Horn and D. Bucley, 'Disasters and accidents', in J. Shepherd, Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Media, Industry and Society (London: Continuum, 2003), ISBN0-8264-6321-5, p. 209.
- ^P. Wicke, Rock Music: Culture, Aesthetics and Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn., 1995), ISBN0-521-39914-9, pp. 91–114.
- ^E.T. Yazicioglu and A.F. Firat, 'Clocal rock festivals as mirrors into the futures of cultures', in R.W. Belk, ed., Consumer Culture Theory (Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing, 2007), ISBN0-7623-1446-X, pp. 109–14.
- ^J. Schaap and P. Berkers, 'Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music', Journal of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music, vol.4(1) (2014), pp. 101–02.
- ^ abJ. Schaap and P. Berkers. 'Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music', Journal of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music, Vol.4 (1), (2014), p. 102,
- ^ abcJ. Schaap and P. Berkers, 'Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music', Journal of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music, Vol.4(1), (2014), p. 104.
- ^White, Erika (28 January 2015). 'Music History Primer: 3 Pioneering Female Songwriters of the '60s | REBEAT Magazine'. Rebeatmag.com. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
- ^ abcAuslander, Philip (28 January 2004). 'I Wanna Be Your Man: Suzi Quatro's musical androgyny'(PDF). Popular Music. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 23 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1017/S0261143004000030. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 May 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- ^ abBrake, Mike (1990). 'Heavy Metal Culture, Masculinity and Iconography'. In Frith, Simon; Goodwin, Andrew (eds.). On Record: Rock, Pop and the Written Word. Routledge. pp. 87–91.
- ^Walser, Robert (1993). Running with the Devil:Power, Gender and Madness in Heavy Metal Music. Wesleyan University Press. p. 76.
- ^Eddy, Chuck (1 July 2011). 'Women of Metal'. Spin. SpinMedia Group.
- ^Kelly, Kim (17 January 2013). 'Queens of noise: heavy metal encourages heavy-hitting women'. The Telegraph.
- ^For example, vocalists Girls Aloud are referred to as a 'girl band' in OK magazine and the Guardian, while Girlschool are termed a 'girl group' at the imdb and Belfast Telegraph.
Further reading and listening[edit]
- Bogdanov, V.; Woodstra, C.; Erlewine, S.T., eds. (2002). All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul (3rd ed.). Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books. ISBN0-87930-653-X.
- Christgau, Robert (1992). 'B.E.: A Dozen Moments in the Prehistory of Rock and Roll'. Details.
- Gilliland, John (1969). 'Crammer: A lively cram course on the history of rock and some other things'(audio). Pop Chronicles. University of North Texas Libraries.
- Robinson, Richard. Pop, Rock, and Soul. New York: Pyramid Books, 1972. Without ISBN
- Shepherd, J., ed. (2003). Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Volume II: Performance and Production. New York: Continuum. ISBN0-8264-6322-3.
- Szatmary, David P. Rockin' in Time: a Social History of Rock-and-Roll. Third ed. Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996. xvi, 320 p., ill., mostly with b&w photos. ISBN0-13-440678-8
External links[edit]
Library resources about Rock music |
- Rock music at Curlie
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_music&oldid=901888121'
Pentangle performing in 1969
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The folk music of England is tradition-based music, which has existed since the later medieval period. It is often contrasted with courtly, classical and later commercial music. Folk music has been preserved and transmitted orally, through print and later through recordings. The term is used to refer to English traditional music and music composed, or delivered, in a traditional style. English folk music has produced or contributed to several important musical genres, including sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music, such as that used for Morris dancing. It can be seen as having distinct regional and local variations in content and style, particularly in areas more removed from the cultural and political centres of the English state, as in Northumbria, or the West Country. Cultural interchange and processes of migration mean that English folk music, although in many ways distinctive, has particularly interacted with the music of Scotland. It has also interacted with other musical traditions, particularly classical and rock music, influencing musical styles and producing musical fusions, such as British folk rock, folk punk and folk metal. There remains a flourishing sub-culture of English folk music, which continues to influence other genres and occasionally gains mainstream attention.
- 1History
- 5Forms of folk music
- 6Regional traditions
- 6.5The South East
- 6.6The West Country
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
Original score of Pastime with Good Company (c. 1513), held in the British Library, London.
In the strictest sense, English folk music has existed since the arrival of the Anglo-Saxon people in Britain after 400 CE. The Venerable Bede's story of the cattleman and later ecclesiastical musician Cædmon indicates that in the early medieval period it was normal at feasts to pass around the harp and sing 'vain and idle songs'.[1] Since this type of music was rarely notated, we have little knowledge of its form or content.[2] Some later tunes, like those used for Morris dance, may have their origins in this period, but it is impossible to be certain of these relationships.[3] We know from a reference in William Langland's Piers Plowman, that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least by the late 14th century and the oldest detailed material we have is Wynkyn de Worde's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495.[4]
16th century to the 18th century[edit]
While there was distinct court music, members of the social elite into the 16th century also seem to have enjoyed, and even to have contributed to the music of the people, as Henry VIII perhaps did with the tavern song 'Pastime with Good Company'.[5]Peter Burke argued that late medieval social elites had their own culture, but were culturally ‘amphibious', able to participate in and affect popular traditions.[6]
Pastime with Good Company.
In the 16th century the changes in the wealth and culture of the upper social orders caused tastes in music to diverge.[6][7] There was an internationalisation of courtly music in terms of both instruments, such as the lute, dulcimer and early forms of the harpsichord, and in form with the development of madrigals, pavanes and galliards.[8] For other social orders, instruments like the pipe, tabor, bagpipe, shawm, hurdy-gurdy, and crumhorn accompanied traditional music and community dance.[9] The fiddle, well established in England by the 1660s, was unusual in being a key element in both the art music that developed in the baroque, and in popular song and dance.[10]
A vihuela playing 'Jamaica' from Playford's 4th edition of The English Dancing Master | |
Problems playing this file? See media help. |
By the mid-17th century, the music of the lower social orders was sufficiently alien to the aristocracy and 'middling sort' for a process of rediscovery to be needed in order to understand it, along with other aspects of popular culture such as festivals, folklore and dance.[6] This led to a number of early collections of printed material, including those published by John Playford as The English Dancing Master (1651), and the private collections of Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) and the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer (1661–1724).[4]
In the 18th century there were increasing numbers of collections of what was now beginning to be defined as 'folk' music, strongly influenced by the Romantic movement, including Thomas D'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: or, Pills to Purge Melancholy (1719–20) and Bishop Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765).[4] The last of these also contained some oral material and by the end of the 18th century this was becoming increasingly common, with collections including John Ritson's, The Bishopric Garland (1784), which paralleled the work of figures like Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland.[4]
It was in this period, too, that English folk music traveled across the Atlantic Ocean and became the foundation for and main ancestor of American traditional music. In the colonies, it mixed with styles of music brought by other immigrant groups to create a host of new genres. For instance, English balladry combined with African banjo playing ultimately produced bluegrass and country music, which evolved, when combined with African-American blues, into rock and roll.
Early 19th century[edit]
With the Industrial Revolution the themes of the music of the labouring classes began to change from rural and agrarian life to include industrial work songs.[11] Awareness that older kinds of song were being abandoned prompted renewed interest in collecting folk songs during the 1830s and 1840s, including the work of William Sandys' Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), William Chappell, A Collection of National English Airs (1838) and Robert Bell's Ancient Poems, Ballads and Songs of the Peasantry of England (1846).[12]
Technological change made new instruments available and led to the development of silver and brass bands, particularly in industrial centres in the north.[13] The shift to urban centres also began to create new types of music, including from the 1850s the Music hall, which developed from performances in ale houses into theatres and became the dominant locus of English popular music for over a century.[14] This combined with increased literacy and print to allow the creation of new songs that initially built on, but began to differ from traditional music as composers like Lionel Monckton and Sidney Jones created music that reflected new social circumstances.[15]
Folk revivals 1890–1969[edit]
From the late 19th century there were a series of movements that attempted to collect, record, preserve and later to perform, English folk music and dance. These are usually separated into two folk revivals.
The first, in the later 19th and early 20th centuries, involved figures including collectors Sabine Baring-Gould (1834–1924), Frank Kidson (1855–1926), Lucy Broadwood (1858–1939), and Anne Gilchrist (1863–1954), centred around the Folk Song Society, founded in 1911.[4]Francis James Child's (1825–96) eight-volume collection The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–92) became the most influential in defining the repertoire of subsequent performers, and Cecil Sharp (1859–1924), founder of the English Folk Dance Society, was probably the most important figure in understanding of the nature of folk song.[4] The revival was part of a wider national movement in the period around the First World War, and contributed to the creation of a 'national' or 'pastoral' school of classical music which incorporated traditional songs or motifs, as can be seen in the compositions of Percy Grainger (1882–1961), Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1951), George Butterworth (1885–1916), Gustav Holst (1874–1934) and Frederick Delius (1862–1934).[16][17] In 1932 the Folk-Song Society and the English Folk Dance Society merged to become the English Folk Dance and Song Society (EFDSS).[11]
Martin Carthy performing with The Imagined Village at Camp Bestival - 20 July 2008
The second revival gained momentum after the Second World War, following on from the American folk music revival as new forms of media and American commercial music appeared to pose another threat to traditional music.[16][18] The key figures were Ewan MacColl and A. L. Lloyd. The second revival was generally left wing in politics and emphasised the work music of the 19th century and previously neglected forms like erotic folk songs.[4]Topic Records, founded in 1939, provided a major source of folk recordings.[16] The revival resulted in the foundation of a network of folk clubs in major towns, from the 1950s.[19] Major traditional performers included the Copper Family, The Watersons, the Ian Campbell Folk Group, and Shirley Collins.[20] The fusing of various styles of American music with English folk also helped to create a distinctive form of guitar fingerstyle known as ‘folk baroque’, which was pioneered by Davy Graham, Martin Carthy, John Renbourn and Bert Jansch.[21]
Progressive folk[edit]
The process of fusion between American musical styles and English folk can also be seen as the origin of British progressive folk music, which attempted to elevate folk music through greater musicianship, or compositional and arrangement skills.[22] Many progressive folk performers continued to retain a traditional element in their music, including Jansch and Renbourn, who with Jacqui McShee, Danny Thompson, and Terry Cox, formed Pentangle in 1967.[23] Others totally abandoned the traditional element and in this area particularly influential were the Scottish artists Donovan, who was most influenced by emerging progressive folk musicians in America like Bob Dylan, and the Incredible String Band, who from 1967 incorporated a range of influences including medieval and eastern music into their compositions. Some of this, particularly the Incredible String Band, has been seen as developing into the further subgenre of psych or psychedelic folk and had a considerable impact on progressive and psychedelic rock.[24]
There was a brief flowering of English progressive folk in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with groups like the Third Ear Band and Quintessence following the eastern Indian musical and more abstract work by group such as Comus, Dando Shaft, The Trees, Spirogyra, Forest, and Jan Dukes De Grey, but commercial success was elusive for these bands and most had broken up or moved in very different directions by about 1973. Perhaps the finest individual work in the genre was from artists early 1970s artists like Nick Drake and John Martyn, but these can also be considered the first among the English ‘folk troubadours’ or ‘singer-songwriters’, individual performers who remained largely acoustic but who relied mostly on their own individual compositions.[25] The most successful of these was Ralph McTell, whose ‘Streets of London’ reached number 2 in the UK Single Charts in 1974, and whose music is clearly folk, but without much reliance on tradition, virtuosity, or much evidence of attempts at fusion with other genres.[26]
British folk rock[edit]
Fairport Convention in a Dutch television show in 1972
British folk rock developed in Britain during the mid to late 1960s by the bands Fairport Convention, and Pentangle which built on elements of American folk rock, and on the second British folk revival.[16] It uses traditional music, and compositions in a traditional style, played on a combination of rock and traditional instruments.[27] It was most significant in the 1970s, when it was taken up by groups such as Pentangle, Steeleye Span and the Albion Band.[28] It was rapidly adopted and developed in the surrounding Celtic cultures of Brittany, where it was pioneered by Alan Stivell and bands like Malicorne; in Ireland by groups such as Horslips; and also in Scotland, Wales and the Isle of Man and Cornwall, to produce Celtic rock and its derivatives.[29] It has been influential in those parts of the world with close cultural connections to Britain, such as the USA and Canada and gave rise to the subgenre of Medieval folk rock and the fusion genres of folk punk and folk metal.[30] By the 1980s the genre was in steep decline in popularity, but has survived and revived in significance as part of a more general folk resurgence since the 1990s.[31]
Folk punk[edit]
In the mid-1980s a new rebirth of English folk began, this time fusing folk with energy and political aggression derived from punk rock. Leaders included The Pogues, The Men They Couldn't Hang, Oyster Band and Billy Bragg.[32] Folk dance music also became popular in the 80s, with acts like the English Country Blues Band and Tiger Moth.[33] The decade later saw the use of reggae with English folk music by the band Edward II & the Red Hot Polkas, especially on their seminal Let's Polkasteady from 1987.[34]
Folk metal[edit]
Eliza Carthy
In a process strikingly similar to the origins of British folk rock in the 1960s, the English thrash metal band Skyclad added violins from a session musician on several tracks for their 1990 debut album The Wayward Sons of Mother Earth.[35] When this was well received they adopted a full-time fiddle player and moved towards a signature folk and jig style leading them to be credited as the pioneers of folk metal, which has spread to Ireland, the Baltic and Germany.[35]
Traditional folk resurgence 1990-present[edit]
The peak of traditional English folk, like progressive and electric folk, was the mid- to late-1970s, when, for a time it threatened to break through into the mainstream. By the end of the decade, however, it was in decline.[36] The attendance at, and numbers of folk clubs began to decrease, probably as new musical and social trends, including punk rock, new wave and electronic music began to dominate.[37] Although many acts like Martin Carthy and the Watersons continued to perform successfully, there were very few significant new acts pursuing traditional forms in the 1980s. This began to change with a new generation in the 1990s. The arrival and sometimes mainstream success of acts like Kate Rusby, Bellowhead, Nancy Kerr, Kathryn Tickell, Jim Moray, Spiers and Boden, Seth Lakeman, Frank Turner, Laura Marling and Eliza Carthy, all largely concerned with acoustic performance of traditional material, marked a radical turn around in the fortunes of the tradition.[20] This was reflected in the adoption creation of the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards in 2000, which gave the music a much needed status and focus and the profile of folk music is as high in England today as it has been for over thirty years.[38]
Folk clubs[edit]
Although there were a handful of clubs that allowed space for the performance of traditional folk music by the early 1950s, its major boost came from the short-lived British skiffle craze, from about 1956-8.[16] New clubs included the ‘Ballad and Blues’ club in a pub in Soho, co-founded by Ewan MacColl.[11] As the craze subsided from the mid-1950s many of these clubs began to shift towards the performance of English traditional folk material.[16] Many became strict ‘policy clubs’, that pursued a pure and traditional form of music.[11] By the mid-1960s there were probably over 300 in Britain.[16] Most clubs were simply a regular gathering, usually in the back or upstairs room of a public house on a weekly basis.[39] They were largely a phenomenon of the urbanised middle classes and known for the amateur nature of many performances.[40] There were also ‘residents’, who performed regular short sets of songs.[41] Many of these later emerged as major performers in their own right, including A. L. Lloyd, Martin Carthy, and Shirley Collins.[42] A later generation of performers used the folk club circuit for highly successful mainstream careers, including Billy Connolly, Jasper Carrott, Ian Dury and Barbara Dickson.[16] The number of clubs began to decline in the 1980s, in the face of changing musical and social trends. But the decline began to stabilize in the mid-1990s with the resurgence of interest in folk music and there are now over 160 folk clubs in the United Kingdom, including many that can trace their origins back to the 1950s.[43]
Folk music and the radio[edit]
The difficulty of gaining regular appearances on television in England has long meant that radio has remained the major popular medium for increasing awareness of the genre. The EFDSS sponsored the BBC Home Service radio program, As I Roved Out, based on field recordings made by Peter Kennedy and Séamus Ennis from 1952 to 1958, which probably did more than any other single factor to introduce the general population to British folk music in the period.[44] Also important were occasional radio shows, such as Lomax’s Ballads and Blues (1951),[45] MacColl’s Radio-ballads (1958–64) and The Song Carriers (1968).[44]John Peel frequently included folk music of his Top Gear show on Radio One from 1968, but dropped it when punk arrived in the 1970s.[44] The most consistent source of folk music on radio, has been BBC Radio 2. In 1967 'My Kind of folk' was broadcast on Wednesdays. In 1970 'Folk on Friday' began, presented by Jim Lloyd. In 1972 it became 'Folk on Sunday'.[46] 'Folkweave' was presented by Tony Capstick 1975-8. 'Folk on Two' (Wednesdays) began in 1980. In 1998 Jim Lloyd retired from the programme and was replaced by Mike Harding. In 2007 it was renamed 'The Mike Harding Folk Show'. In October 2012 it was announced that Mike Harding would be leaving the programme to be replaced by Mark Radcliffe.[47]Ian A. Anderson, editor of 'fRoots', also presented the occasional series for Radio Two. He hosted a World music programme on 'Jazz FM' and then spent 10 years broadcasting on the BBC World Service. He currently hosts 'fRoots Radio' on the web.[48] For over twenty years, until 2006, Charlie Gillett presented World music on BBC London.
Folk festivals[edit]
The Cambridge Folk Festival 2008
Folk festivals began to be organised by the EFDSS from about 1950, usually as local or regional event with an emphasis on dance, like the Sidmouth Festival (from 1955) and the Keele Festival (1965), which was abandoned in 1981 but reinstituted three years later as the National Folk Festival. The EFDSS gave up its organizing role in these festivals in the 1980s and most are locally run and financed.[49] One of the largest and most prestigious English folk festivals at Cambridge was founded in 1965 and attracts about 10,000 people.[49] Probably the largest is Fairport's Cropredy Convention, which since 1979 has provided a venue for folk, British folk rock, and rock artists; it now attracts up to 20,000 people a year as well as performances for Fairport Convention and their friends.[50] Like rock festivals, folk festivals have begun to multiply since the 1990s and there are over a hundred folk festivals or varying sizes held in England every year.[51]
Forms of folk music[edit]
Ballads[edit]
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative story and set to music. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. They are usually narrative in structure and make considerable use of repetition.[52] The traditional ballad has been seen as originating with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe.[52] There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are religious, supernatural, tragic, love, historic, legends and humour.[52] Many ballads were brought by English settlers to the New World, thus forming the bedrock of American folk music.
Carols[edit]
A carol is a festive song, in modern times recognised as being exclusively associated with Christmas, but in reality there are carols celebrating all festivals and seasons of the year and not necessarily Christian festivals. They were derived from a form of circle dance accompanied by singers, which was popular from the mid-12th century.[53] From the 14th century they were used as processional songs, particularly at Advent, Easter and Christmas, and to accompany religious mystery plays.[54] They declined after the Protestant Reformation which banned many religious festivals, but some famous carols were written in this period, including 'The Holly and the Ivy' and they were more strongly revived from the 19th century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers.[55]
Children's songs[edit]
John Newbery's A Little Pretty Pocket Book
The earliest vernacular children's songs in Europe are lullabies from the later medieval period.[56] From soon after we have records of short children's rhyming songs, but most nursery rhymes were not written down until the 18th century.[57] The first English collections were Tommy Thumb's Song Book and a sequel, Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, are both thought to have been published before 1744, and John Newbery's, Mother Goose's Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle (c.1785), is the first record we have of many classic rhymes.[58] These rhymes seem to have come from a variety of sources, including traditional riddles, proverbs, ballads, lines of Mummers' plays, drinking songs, historical events, and, it has been suggested, ancient pagan rituals.[58] Roughly half of the current body recognised 'traditional' English rhymes were known by the mid-18th century.[57] From this period we sometimes know the origins and authors of rhymes, like 'Twinkle Twinkle Little Star', which combined an 18th-century French tune with a poem by English writer Jane Taylor and 'Mary Had a Little Lamb', written by Sarah Josepha Hale of Boston in 1830.[58] The first, and possibly the most important collection to focus in this area was, James Orchard Halliwell's, The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842) and Popular Rhymes and Tales in 1849.[59] At the height of the revival Sabine Baring-Gould produced A Book of Nursery Songs (1895), and Andrew Lang produced The Nursery Rhyme Book in 1897.[57] Children's songs, unlike folk songs, have remained part of a living and continuous tradition, for although added to from other sources and affected by written versions, most adults pass on songs they learned from oral sources as children.[58]
Erotic folk songs[edit]
It has been noted by most recent commentators on English folk song, that love, the erotic and even the pornographic, were major traditional themes and, if more than ballads are considered, may have been the largest groups of printed songs.[60] Many collectors in the first revival either ignored such songs, or bowdlerized them for publication, as Francis Child and Cecil Sharp did in their collections.[61] In the second revival, erotic folk song was much more accepted as part of the canon of traditional song, helped by the publication of books such as Gershon Legman’s, The Horn Book: Studies in Erotic Folklore (1964) and Ed Cray’s, The Erotic Muse: American Bawdy Songs, which printed many previously unpublished songs (1968).[62] In England A. L. Lloyd was the key figure in introducing erotic songs to the canon, lecturing and publishing on the subject. He recorded The Foggy Dew and Other Traditional English Love Songs in 1959, and then The Bird in the Bush, Traditional Erotic Songs in 1966 with Frankie Armstrong, and Anne Briggs.[63] He drew a distinction between erotic songs, i.e. those that dealt with love and suggested sexuality through innuendo (like 'The Bonny Black Hare' and 'The Bird in the Bush'), and pornographic songs that were explicit and therefore unworthy of attention.[64] Some authors, however, find these distinctions more difficult to maintain. Although erotic songs became part of the standard fare in folk clubs and among folk rock musicians, relatively few of the more explicit songs have been placed on record.[65]
Hornpipes[edit]
The hornpipe is a style of dance music thought to have taken its name from an English reed instrument by at least the 17th century.[10] In the mid-18th century it changed from 3/2 time to 2/2, assuming its modern character, and probably reaching the height of its popularity as it became a staple of theatrical performances.[66] It is most often associated with the Sailor's Hornpipe, but has formed the basis of many individual and group country dances into the modern period.[67] Like many dances it was taken up in Scotland and Ireland and given a distinctive national character and moved to America with emigration.[68]
Jigs[edit]
Jigs are a style of dance music developed in England to accompany a lively dance with steps, turns and leaps. The term jig was derived from the French 'giguer', meaning 'to jump'.[10] It was known as a dance in the 16th century, often in 2/4 time and the term was used for a dancing entertainment in 16th century plays.[69] The dance began to be associated with music particularly in 6/8 time, and with slip jigs 9/8 time.[68] In the 17th century the dance was adopted in Ireland and Scotland, where they were widely adapted, and with which countries they are now most often associated.[70] In some, usually more northern, parts of England, these dances would be referred to as a 'Gallop' - such as the Winster Gallop from Derbyshire (though this owes its origins to the Winster Morris).
Morris dance[edit]
English Elizabethan clown Will Kempe dancing a jig from Norwich to London in 1600
A morris dance is a type of English folk dance, usually accompanied by music, and based on rhythmic stepping and the execution of choreographed figures by a group of dancers, often using implements such as sticks, swords, and handkerchiefs. The name is thought to derive from the term 'moorish dance', for Spanish (Muslim) styles of dance and may derive from English court dances of the period.[71] References have been found that suggest that morris dance dates back to the mid-15th century, but claims of pre-Christian origins are now largely dismissed.[3] Morris dance appears to have been widespread in England by the early 17th century, particularly in pastoral areas, but was suppressed, along with associated festivals during and after the English Civil War.[72] It recovered after the Restoration in 1660 but was in steep decline after agricultural and industrial revolutions by the 19th century, when collectors like Cecil Sharp recorded the practice, particularly from versions of dance he found in the Cotswolds.[11] This led to a revival of the tradition, although it may also have affected form and practice.[73] Morris dance took something of a back seat to unaccompanied singing in the second revival, but received a further boost when it attracted the attention of British folk rock musicians like Ashley Hutchings, who produced several albums of dance music, including the influential Morris On series from 1972.[74] Traditionally Morris dance was accompanied by either a pipe and tabor or a fiddle, but from the mid-19th century most common instruments were the melodeon, accordion, concertina and drums.[75] Particularly in Cotswold and Border morris, many tunes are linked to particular dances. Morris dance survives in the distinct local traditions of Cotswold morris, north-west morris, Border Morris, rapper dance and Long Sword dance.
Protest songs[edit]
Perhaps the oldest clear example of an English protest song is the rhyme ‘When Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?’, used in the Peasants Revolt of 1381.[76] Songs that celebrated social bandits like Robin Hood, from the 14th century onwards can be seen as a more subtle form of protest.[77] With the Levellers and Diggers in the mid-17th century, more overt criticism surfaced, as in the ballad 'The Diggers' Song'.[78] From roughly the same period, songs of protest at war, pointing out the costs to human lives, also begin to appear, like 'The Maunding Souldier or The Fruits of Warre is Beggery', framed as a begging appeal from a crippled soldier of the Thirty Years War.[79] With industrialisation from the 18th century.[80] A surprising English folk hero immortalised in song is Napoleon Bonaparte, in songs such as the 'Bonny Bunch of Roses' and 'Napoleon’s Dream'.[81] As labour became more organised songs were used as anthems and propaganda, for miners with songs like 'The Black Leg Miner', and for factory workers with songs like 'The Factory Bell'.[82] These industrial protest songs were largely ignored during the first English folk revival of the later 19th and early 20th century, but were recorded by figures like A. L. Lloyd on albums such as The Iron Muse (1963).[19] In the 1980s the anarchist rock band Chumbawamba recorded several versions of traditional English protest as English Rebel Songs 1381–1914.[83]Ewan MacColl became the leading writer of English protest songs in the 1950s, with pro-communist songs such as 'The Ballad of Ho Chi Minh' and 'The Ballad of Stalin', as well as volatile protest and topical songs concerning the nuclear threat to peace, most notably 'Against the Atom Bomb'.[84] The leading voice of protest in Thatcherite Britain in the 1980s was Billy Bragg, whose style of protest song and grass-roots political activism was mostly reminiscent of those of Woody Guthrie.[85]
Sea shanties[edit]
Sailors working at a capstan with musical accompaniment
Sea shanties are a type of work song traditionally sung by sailors. Derived from the French word 'chanter', meaning 'to sing', they may date from as early as the 15th century, but most recorded examples derive from the 19th century.[86] Shanties were usually slow rhythmic songs designed to help with collective tasks on labour-intensive sailing and later steam ships. Many were call and response songs, with one voice (the shantyman) singing a lead line and the rest of the sailors giving a response together. There were derived from varied sources, including dances, folk songs, polkas, waltzes and even West African work-songs.[87] Since different songs were useful for different tasks they are traditionally divided into three main categories, short haul shanties, for tasks requiring quick pulls over a relatively short time; halyard shanties, for heavier work requiring more set-up time between pulls; and Capstan shanties, for long, repetitive tasks requiring a sustained rhythm, but not involving working the lines.[87] Famous shanties include, the 'Drunken Sailor' and 'Blow the Man Down'. There was some interest in sea shanties in the first revival from figures like Percy Grainger.[88] In the second revival A. L. Lloyd attempted to popularise them, recording several albums of sea songs from 1965.[19]
War songs[edit]
In England songs about military and naval subjects were a major part of the output of ballad writers from the 16th century onwards, including one of the earliest British ballads ‘The Ballad of Chevy Chase’, which deals with the events of the Scottish victory of the Battle of Otterburn in 1388 and may date to the early 15th century.[89] The conflicts between England and Spain in the later 16th and early 17th centuries produced a number of ballads describing events, particularly naval conflicts like those of the Spanish Armada.[79] The English Civil War (1642–1653) produced a subgenre of 'Cavalier ballads', including 'When the King Home in Peace Again'.[90] Many of these were adapted and reused by Jacobites after the ‘Glorious Revolution’ of 1688.[91] The Anglo-French Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries saw more descriptive works, usually couched in patriotic terms, but some, like ‘Captain Death’ (1757) dealt with loss and defeat.[79] As regimental identities emerged songs were adopted for marching, like ‘The British Grenadiers’, based on a 17th-century dance tune.[92] Output became a flood during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1797–1815), seeing numerous patriotic war songs, like ‘Heart of Oak’ and the emergence of a stereotype of the English seaman as ‘Jolly Jack Tar’, who appeared in many ballads and on stage.[93] As the musical hall began to take over the lead in popular music and folk song declined, folk song ceased to deal with contemporary wars in the later 19th century.[citation needed]
Work songs[edit]
Work songs include music sung while conducting a task (often to coordinate timing) or a song linked to a task or trade which might be a connected narrative, description, or protest song. The two main types of work song in England are agricultural work songs, usually are rhythmica cappellasongs sung by people working on a physical and often repetitive task, like the 'Harvest song' common in south-west England.[94] The songs were probably intended to increase productivity while reducing feelings of boredom.[95] Rhythms of work songs can serve to synchronize physical movement in a group or gang. Industrial folk song emerged in Britain in the 18th century, as workers took the music with which they were familiar, including ballads and agricultural work songs, and adapted them to their new experiences and circumstances.[96] Unlike agricultural work songs, it was often unnecessary to use music to synchronise actions between workers, as the pace would be increasingly determined by water, steam, chemical and eventually electric power, and frequently impossible because of the noise of early industry.[97] As a result, industrial folk songs tended to be descriptive of work, circumstances, or political in nature, making them amongst the earliest protest songs and were sung between work shifts or in leisure hours, rather than during work. This pattern can be seen in textile production, mining and eventually steel, shipbuilding, rail working and other industries.[96]
Regional traditions[edit]
East Anglia[edit]
Molly dancers at Whittlesea Straw Bear Festival
Like many regions of England there are few distinctive local instruments and many songs were shared with the rest of Britain and with Ireland, although the distinct dialects of the regions sometimes lent them a particular stamp and, with one of the longest coastlines of any English region, songs about the sea were also particularly important. Along with the West Country, this was one of the regions that most firmly adopted reed instruments, producing many eminent practitioners of the melodeon from the mid-19th century. Also like the West Country it is one of the few regions where there is still an active tradition of step dancing and like the Midlands the tradition of Molly dance died out in the 1930s.[98] The region was relatively neglected by folk song collectors of the first revival. Lucy Broadwood and Cecil Sharp collected in Cambridgeshire, as did and Vaughan Williams as well as in Norfolk and Essex from 1905, but most important regional figure was composer Ernest John Moeran, who collected over 150 songs in Norfolk and Suffolk in the 1920s.[99] The second folk revival led to the discovery of many East Anglian folk musicians, including Suffolk melodeon player Oscar Woods, Norfolk singers Sam Larner (1878–1965), Harry Cox (1885–1971) and Walter Pardon (1914–96); Suffolk fiddler Harkie Nesling (1890–1978); Suffolk singer and bargeman Bob Roberts (1907–82), many of whom recorded for Topic Records.[100] Perhaps the most influential folk dance musical album was English Country Dance Music (1965), put together by Reg Hall and Bob Davenport with largely Norfolk musicians, it was the first instrumental recording of folk instruments.[20] Also from Norfolk was Peter Bellamy, who in solo projects, with the Young Tradition and in theatrical productions was probably one of the most influential musicians of the post revival period.[101] The Norfolk melodeon player and singer Tony Hall has given the tradition a unique style.[102] East Anglia made a contribution to the British folk rock scene of the 1970s, producing the short-lived, but more recently reformed, bands Midwinter and Stone Angel, based in Great Yarmouth and the more successful Spriguns of Tolgus from Cambridge, who produced four albums.[103] The most successful folk artists from the region in recent years are probably the Essex born Billy Bragg and the Norfolk born Beth Orton.[104] The region is home to numerous folk clubs and hosts many folk festivals, including Steeleye Span’s Spanfest at Kentwell Hall, Suffolk and the Cambridge Folk Festival, generally seen as the most prestigious in the calendar.[51] Since 2000 the East Anglian Traditional Music Trust has been promoting folk music in the region, organising a ‘Traditional Music Day’ every year in August.[105]
The Midlands[edit]
Due to its lack of clear boundaries and a perceived lack of identity in its folk music, the English Midlands attracted relatively little interest in the early revivals. However, in more recent years a distinct cultural heritage has been recognised including unique folk traditions and songs, many associated with the regions industrial connections. It has also produced a number of important performers and some particular local instruments, such as the Lincolnshire bagpipes, however the last player, John Hunsley, died in the 19th century and no actual examples of the pipes have survived.[106] From the 19th century the instruments used appear to have been much like those in other regions, with fiddles, accordions and eventually silver and brass. Although, some traditions, like Molly dance died out in the 1930s, the Midlands retained strong traditions of both ceremonial and social dance, particularly in the south Midlands and Cotswolds and in the distinctive Border Morris from Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Shropshire.[20] The region also furnished some important material for folk songs, including a claim by Nottinghamshire for one of the most popular series of ballads, that of Robin Hood, while local places appear in songs such as ‘The Leicester Chambermaid’ and ‘Oxford’ or ‘Worcester City’.[107] Folk song collecting in the first revival was much less comprehensive than for many other regions. In the 1860s Llewellynn Jewitt, collected songs from Derbyshire, and some songs were printed by Georgina F. Jackson in her study of Shropshire folk lore.[108] Cecil Sharp’s interest in the region was largely confined to the south, particularly the Cotswold morris villages of Oxfordshire and Warwickshire, which provided him with an archetype of English ceremonial dance.[11] From 1905 Percy Grainger was actively collecting in Lincolnshire, acquiring recordings of songs that would provide the basis for his Lincolnshire Posy (1937).[109] It was not until the early 1970s that the broader heritage of the region, including the many industrial and work songs associated with mining or The Potteries, began to gain serious attention.[110] Despite this neglect there was an active folk scene in the region, which produced several key artists of the second revival from the 1960s, including Anne Briggs from Nottinghamshire, The Settlers from the West Midlands and from Birmingham one of the most influential groups of the period, the Ian Campbell Folk Group, which numbered among its members later British folk rock musicians Dave Swarbrick and Dave Pegg.[16] Slightly later a number of folk groups came out of Derbyshire, including The Druids, Ram's Bottom Band and Muckram Wakes, which included one of the most highly regarded modern performers John Tams.[16] Lincolnshire has produced Martin Simpson, perhaps the most highly regarded folk guitarist of his generation.[111] Birmingham’s position as a centre for folk music has been emphasised by its place as the home of the Birmingham Conservatoire Folk Ensemble, led by former Albion Band fiddler Joe Broughton, which provides something of a clearing house of promising young folk musicians.[112] The regions has numerous folk clubs and host many major folk festivals, including those of Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Loughborough in Leicestershire, Shrewsbury in Shropshire, Warwick and Moseley.[113]
The North West[edit]
Although relatively neglected in the first folk revival North West England had a rich tradition of balladry stretching back at least to the 17th century and sharing in the tradition of Border ballads, including perhaps the finest ‘The Ballad of Chevy Chase', thought to have been composed by the Lancashire-born sixteenth century minstrel Richard Sheale.[114] Lancashire in particular was a common location for folk songs, including ‘The Lancashire Miller’, ‘Warrington Ale’ and ‘The soldier’s farewell to Manchester’, beside several local Wassailing songs.[114] With a variety of dialects and acting as something of a crossroads for the cultures and immigrants of England, Scotland and Ireland, there is a distinctive local character to folk music, which expressed itself in local enthusiasm that emerged as a major factor within the wider folk movement in the second revival. The key event in the history of folk music in the counties of the north west of England was the Industrial Revolution, which divided the region economically and culturally into a northern, often highland and pastoral region, in Westmorland and Cumberland and a more urbanised and industrialised southern zone with large and growing conurbations like Manchester and Liverpool, where changing social and economic patterns emerged in new traditions and styles of folk song, often linked to migration and patterns of work, these included processional dances, often associated with rushbearing and the Wakes Week festivities and types of step dance, most famously clog dancing.[115] These were very different from the styles of dance that collectors like Cecil Sharp had encountered in the Cotswolds and were largely dismissed by him as contaminated by urbanisation, yet they were, and remain, a thriving tradition of music and dance.[11] A local pioneer of folk song collection in the first half of the 19th century in Lancashire was Shakespearian scholar James Orchard Halliwell, and he was followed a little later by John Harland, William E. Axon, Thomas T. Wilkinson and Sidney Gilpin, who performed a similar service for Cumberland.[116] Most of these works, although important in unearthing, and in some cases preserving, locally relevant ballads, largely depended on manuscript sources, rather than oral collection and often did not give tunes, but only lyrics.[114] It was not until the second folk revival that the full range of song from the region began to gain attention. The region not only produced one of the major figures of the revival in Ewan MacColl but also a local champion in Harry Boardman, who from 1965 onwards probably did more than anyone to popularise and record the industrial folk song of the region, in several albums and books.[117] The region produced no significant bands in the folk rock movement of the 1970s but can claim one of the most significant figures, as Maddy Prior was brought up in Blackpool. However, perhaps the most influential folk artists to emerge from the region in this period were folk troubadour Roy Harper and comedian and broadcaster Mike Harding.[118] More recently it has produced some significant performers including guitarist Ken Nicol and mother and daughter singer songwriters Chris and Kellie While.[119] The region is home to numerous folk clubs, many of them catering to Irish and Scots folk. Folk festivals include the Fylde Folk Festival at Fleetwood in Lancashire.[120]
Northumbria[edit]
Billy Purvis (1784–1853) one of the last travelling minstrel pipers of the south of Scotland and the north east of England.
Northumbria possesses a distinctive style of folk music with a flourishing and continuing tradition.[20] The region is particularly noted for the unique Northumbrian smallpipes and strong fiddle tradition that was already well-established in the 1690s. Northumbrian music is characterised by considerable influence from other regions, particularly southern Scotland, other parts of the north of England and Ireland.[20] Local tunes were collected from the mid-18th century by figures including Henry Atkinson and William Vickers and in the first revival by John Bell, Bruce. J. Collingwood and John Stokoe.[121] The short-lived Northumbrian Small Pipes Society was founded in Newcastle in 1893 and the Northumbrian Pipers' Society in 1928, and they are generally credited with keeping the distinctive tradition alive.[122] Border ballads were a major part of those collected by Francis James Child and make up most of the sixth volume of his ten volume collection of The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–98).[123] The second folk revival saw a number of acts drawing on this work, and enjoying some success. Probably the most influential piper at that time was Billy Pigg.[18] Performers such Louis Killen, The High Level Ranters and Bob Davenport brought Northumbrian folk to national and international audiences.[20] The 1970s saw folk rock bands like Lindisfarne, and the more traditionally focused Jack the Lad and Hedgehog Pie.[20] More recently, Northumbrian folk music, and particularly the use of the Northumbrian pipes, has become one of the liveliest and most widely known subgenres of folk music in Britain, with artists like fiddler Nancy Kerr, piper Kathryn Tickell and Rachel Unthank and the Winterset gaining international reputations.[20] Currently the region has over thirty active folk clubs and hosts several major folk festivals, including the Traditional Music Festival at Rothbury.[124][125]
The South East[edit]
Even excluding Sussex and London, South-east England has been one of the key areas of English folk music and collection. It had retained a strong tradition of wassailing, and seafaring songs were important in the coastal counties of Kent and Hampshire. Arguably the published collection of oral material was made in this area by John Broadwood, as Old English Songs, As Now Sung by the Peasantry of the Weald of Surrey and Sussex (1843).[126] When the first revival was at its height in the first decade of the 20th century, George Gardiner and Alice Gillington both collected songs in Hampshire, Lucy Broadwood in Surrey, Hampshire and Oxfordshire, Alfred Williams in Oxfordshire and Berkshire and Cecil Sharp in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, and Kent.[127] In the second folk revival the region contributed several figures, with probably the most important being Martin Carthy from Hertfordshire. The most significant British folk rock group from the region were the Oyster Band, formed in Canterbury, while guitarist John Martyn came from Surrey and fiddle player Chris Leslie from Banbury in Oxfordshire. From the current crop of young folk musicians probably the most prominent are Spiers and Boden from Oxfordshire and Chris Wood, born in Kent. The region is host to numerous folk clubs, and festivals, including the Oxford festival and Fairport’s Cropredy Convention in Oxfordshire and St Albans in Hertfordshire.[120]
London[edit]
Street vendors in a 16th-century print
Despite being the centre of both folk revivals and the British folk rock movement, the songs of London were largely neglected in favour of regional and rural music until relatively recently. London, unsurprisingly, was the most common location mentioned in English folk songs, including ‘London is a Fine Town’, and the ‘London Prentice’ and it was the centre of the broadside publishing industry.[79] From the 17th century to the 19th, street singers were characteristic of London life, often selling printed versions of the songs they sang.[128] The capital was home to the Folk-Song Society and the English Folk Dance Society from the late 19th century, but the most distinctive genre of London music, its many street cries, were not considered folk music by mainstream collectors and were recorded and published by figures such as Andrew White in Old London Street Cries ; and, The Cries of To-day (1885).[129] Both Ewan MacColl and A. L. Lloyd gravitated to London in the 1950s, it was the base of Topic Records and it was there that the first folk clubs were formed before they spread out across the country.[4] It was also the home of folk musicians like Ashley Hutchings, Richard Thompson and Simon Nicol who formed Fairport Convention, and many artists, like Bert Jansch and Davy Graham, moved there in order to be able to pursue their careers or for the greater networks and opportunities the capital allowed.[130] More recent performers of folk music include Noah and the Whale, Emma Lee Moss, Mumford and Sons and The Border Surrender.[131]
Sussex[edit]
Sussex has disproportionately affected the history of English folk music. This was due to a flourishing tradition of folk dance, mummers plays and folk song, but also in part because of the rural nature of the county in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and yet its relatively close proximity to London. It was thus a rich and convenient place for the collectors of the first folk song revival, including Kate Lee, Lucy Broadwood and W. P. Merrick.[132] Sussex material was used by the composers of the English pastoral school, for example in Percy Grainger’s arrangement of ‘The Sussex Mummers' Christmas Carol’, Ralph Vaughan Williams' use of the tune ‘Monk's Gate’ as a setting for John Bunyan’s ‘To be a Pilgrim’ and George Butterworth’s arrangement of 'Folk Songs from Sussex'.[133] Most important of the collector’s sources were the Copper Family of Rottingdean, who emerged as authorities on folk song and eventually as major recording artists.[134] Sussex folk song also had a formative effect on one of the major figures of the second revival, as it was as a child of five in Sussex that A. L. Lloyd first heard folk music.[135] Other performers include Scan Tester, Henry Burstow and the sisters Dolly and Shirley Collins. Sussex songs were also the foundation of the repertoire of the influential Young Tradition.[136] The county has over twenty folk clubs and other venues hosting folk music by organisations such as Acoustic Sussex. There are also annual folk music festivals at Eastbourne, Crawley and Lewes.[137]
The West Country[edit]
Cornwall[edit]
The red party attending the red 'obby 'oss in the Padstow mayday festival.
The music of Cornwall is often noted for its similarity to that of Brittany and, as a result of the close physical and cultural ties between the two peninsulas, some older songs and carols share the same root as Breton tunes.[138] From the late Middle Ages the fiddle (crowd in Cornish), bombarde (horn-pipe), bagpipes and harp all seem to have been used in music. The Cornish bagpipes died out, as elsewhere in southern England, in the 16th century, but have recently been re-created.[139] From the mid-19th century accordions became progressively more popular as a folk instrument in the county, as in the rest of the West Country. There is long and varied history of Cornish dance from the medieval period, with records of strong traditions of morris dancing, mumming, guise dancing, and social dance.[140] These seem to have been interrupted by the Reformation and Civil War and Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th centuries.[141] However, there was revival from the late 18th century and seasonal and community festivals, mumming and guising all flourished.[142] In the 19th century a strong tradition of nonconformity and temperance may also have affected dancing and music adversely and encouraged choral and brass band movements, while traditional tunes were used for carols. Some community events survived, such as the 'Obby 'Oss festival in Padstow and the Furry Dance in Helston.[143] Folk songs include ‘Sweet Nightingale’, ‘Little Eyes’, and ‘Lamorna’. 'Trelawny' is often sung at sporting events and is seen by many as an unofficial anthem.[144] Few traditional Cornish lyrics survived the decline of the language, but in some cases lyrics of common English songs became attached to older Cornish tunes.[145] Some folk tunes have Cornish lyrics written since the language revival of the 1920s.[145] Modern Cornish musicians include the former Cornish folk singer Brenda Wootton and the Cornish-Breton family band Anao Atao.[145] Recently bands like Sacred Turf, Skwardya and Krena, have begun performing British folk rock in the Cornish language.[146] The Cornwall Folk Festival has been held annually for more than three decades.[147]
The rest of the West Country[edit]
Seth Lakeman on stage in 2008
Outside Devon and Cornwall Celtic influence on music in the West Country is much less obvious, but folk music still retains many distinctive local characteristics. As in Cornwall there are very strong traditions of folk dance and mumming, the best known being the Hobby horse celebrations at Minehead in Somerset.[148] The maritime heritage of Devon made sea shanties, hornpipes and naval or sea ballads important parts of regional folk music.[88] From the 19th century accordions have been a popular and accepted part of the local folk sound. Folk songs from the West Country include ‘Widdecombe Fair’, ‘Spanish Ladies’ and ‘The Seeds of Love.’ The region was important in the first folk revival, as the Devon-born antiquarianSabine Baring-Gould invested effort in collecting regional music, published as Songs and Ballads of the West (1889–91), the first collection published for the mass market. He later collaborated with Cecil Sharp who, with Charles Marson, produced a three volume Folk-Songs from Somerset (1904–09).[149] Other collectors included Henry and Robert Hammond in Dorset, the Reverend Geoffrey Hill in Wiltshire, Percy Grainger in Gloucestershire and, perhaps the most famous, Ralph Vaughan Williams' 'Folk Songs from Somerset', which provided themes for his English Folk Song Suite.[150] In the second folk revival the most famous West country musicians were melodeon-player Bob Cann and writer, performer and broadcaster Cyril Tawney, 'The Father of the West Country Folk Revival'.[151] In the 1970s there were figures such as Tony Rose.[152] The same period saw one of the most surprising hybrids in music history Scrumpy and Western with bands like the Wurzels and The Yetties, who took most of the elements of West Country folk music for comical folk-style songs with affectionate parodies of more mainstream musical genres, delivered in local West Country dialects.[153] More seriously, the West Country and particularly Devon, have produced some of the most successful folk artists of recent years, including Show of Hands, Mark Bazeley and Jason Rice, Paul Downes, Jim Causley, Seth Lakeman and his brothers.[154] The region has numerous folk clubs and annual festivals, including those at Portsmouth and the first modern English folk festival to be established at Sidmouth in Devon along with its associated 'Late Night Extra' venue at Bulverton .[155]
Yorkshire[edit]
Yorkshire has a rich heritage of folk music and folk dance including the Long Sword dance.[156] Folk songs were collected there from the 19th century but, though it probably had more attention than other northern counties, its rich heritage of industrial folk song was relatively neglected.[157] It was not until the second revival in the 1950s that Nigel and Mary Hudleston began to attempt to redress the balance, collecting Yorkshire songs between 1958 and 1978.[158] Yorkshire folk song lacked the unique instrumental features of folk in areas like Northumbria and was chiefly distinguished by the use of dialect, particularly in the West Riding and exemplified by the song ‘On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at’, probably written in the later 19th century and using a Kent folk tune (almost certainly borrowed via a Methodisthymnal), but often seen as an unofficial Yorkshire anthem.[159] Most Yorkshire folk songs were not unique and tended to be adapted to fit local geography and dialect, as was the case with probably the most commercially successful Yorkshire song, ‘Scarborough Fair’, recorded by Simon & Garfunkel, which was a version of the Scottish ballad ‘The Elfin Knight’.[160] The most famous folk performers from the county are the Watersons from Hull, who began recording Yorkshire versions of folk songs from 1965.[161] Other Yorkshire folk musicians include Heather Wood (born 1945) of the Young Tradition, the short-lived folk rock group Mr Fox (1970-2), The Deighton Family, Julie Matthews, Kathryn Roberts, and the Mercury Prize nominated Kate Rusby.[161] Even considering its position as the largest county in England, Yorkshire has a flourishing folk music culture, with over forty folk clubs and thirty annual folk music festivals.[162] In 2007, the Yorkshire Garland Group was formed to make Yorkshire folk songs accessible online and in schools.[163]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^R. I. Page, Life in Anglo-Saxon England (London: Batsford, 1970), pp. 159-60.
- ^C. Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music (Maesteg: Pendragon Press, 1978).
- ^ abJ. Forrest, The History of Morris Dancing, 1458–1750 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), p. 48.
- ^ abcdefghB. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 45-9.
- ^D. Starkey, Henry VIII: A European Court in England (London: Collins & Brown in association with the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, 1991), p. 154.
- ^ abcPeter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London: Billing, 1978), pp. 3, 17-19 and 28.
- ^D. C. Price, Patrons and Musicians of the English Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 5.
- ^J. Wainwright, P. Holman, From Renaissance to Baroque: Change in Instruments and Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005).
- ^M. Chanan, Musica Practica: The Social Practice of Western Music from Gregorian Chant to Postmodernism (London: Verso, 1994), p. 179.
- ^ abcJ. Ling, L. Schenck and R. Schenck, A History of European Folk Music (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1997), pp. 123, 160 and 194.
- ^ abcdefgG. Boyes, The Imagined Village: Culture, Ideology, and the English Folk Revival (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 214.
- ^W. B. Sandys, Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (London, 1833); W. Chappell, A Collection of National English Airs (London, 1838) and R. Bell, Ancient Poems, Ballads and Songs of the Peasantry of England (London, 1846).
- ^D. Russell, Popular Music in England, 1840–1914: A Social History (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987), pp. 160-90.
- ^D. Kift, The Victorian Music Hall: Culture, Class, and Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 17.
- ^W. Boosey, Fifty Years of Music (1931, Read Books, 2007), p. 161.
- ^ abcdefghijM. Brocken, The British Folk Revival, 1944–2002 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 6, 8, 32, 38, 53-63, 68-70, 74-8, 97, 99, 103, 112-4 and 132.
- ^S. Sadie and A. Latham, The Cambridge Music Guide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 472.
- ^ abJ. Connell and C. Gibson, Sound Tracks: Popular Music, Identity, and Place (Routledge, 2003), pp. 34-6.
- ^ abcB. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 32-6.
- ^ abcdefghiS. Broughton, M. Ellingham, R. Trillo, O. Duane, V. Dowell, World Music: The Rough Guide (London: Rough Guides, 1999), pp. 66-8 and 79-80.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 184-9.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 203.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 40.
- ^J. DeRogatis, Turn on Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock (Milwaukie MI, Hal Leonard, 2003), p. 120.
- ^P. Buckley, The Rough Guide to Rock: the definitive guide to more than 1200 artists and bands (London: Rough Guides, 2003), pp. 145, 211-12, 643-4.
- ^'Sold on Song', BBC Radio 2, retrieved 19/02/09.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 21-5.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 84, 97 and 103-5.
- ^J. S. Sawyers, Celtic Music: A Complete Guide (Cambridge MA: Da Capo Press, 2001), pp. 1-12.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 240-57.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 266-70.
- ^B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 197-8.
- ^S. Broughton and M. Ellingham, World Music: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific Volume 2 of World Music: The Rough Guide (Rough Guides, 1999), p. 75.
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External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_folk_music&oldid=897286513'